Joined Relations

 Join operations take two relations and return as a result another

relation.
 A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that tuples in the
two relations match (under some condition). It also specifies the
attributes that are present in the result of the join
 Joins are:

 Inner join
 Left Outer join
 Right Outer Join
 Full Outer Join

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 Outer Join
 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does
not match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
 Uses null values.
 joins:
 Inner Join
 left outer join
 right outer join
 full outer join

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 Outer Join Example Tables

 course relation

 prereq relation

 Observe that
course information is missing CS-347
prereq information is missing CS-315

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 Left Outer Join

 General structure
 <table 1> natural left outer join <table 2>
 Example
 course natural left outer join prereq

 Add to the course relation (on the left) the relevant info from prereq
 Since CS-315 does not appear in prereq we use null for
prereq_id
 In relational algebra syntax:
course ⟕ prereq

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 Right Outer Join

 course natural right outer join prereq

 Add to the prereq relation (on the right) the relevant info from course
 In relational algebra:
course ⟖ prereq

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 Full Outer Join

 course natural full outer join prereq

 In relational algebra:
course ⟗ prereq

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Views and Authorization
 Views
 In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the
entire logical model (that is, all the actual relations stored in
the database.)
 Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name
and department, but not the salary. This person should see a
relation described, in SQL, by

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor

 A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the

view of certain users.
 Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made
visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.

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 View Definition
 A view is defined using the create view statement which has
the form

create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The

view name is represented by v.
 Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to
the virtual relation that the view generates.
 View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by
evaluating the query expression
 Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression;
the expression is substituted into queries using the view.

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 Example Views
 A view of instructors without their salary
create view faculty as
select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor
 Find all instructors in the Biology department
select name
from faculty
where dept_name = ‘Biology’
 Create a view of department salary totals
create view departments_total_salary(dept_name, total_salary) as
select dept_name, sum (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;

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 Views Defined Using Other Views
 create view physics_fall_2009 as
select course.course_id, sec_id, building, room_number
from course, section
where course.course_id = section.course_id
and course.dept_name = ’Physics’
and section.semester = ’Fall’
and section.year = ’2009’;
 create view physics_fall_2009_watson as
select course_id, room_number
from physics_fall_2009
where building= ’Watson’;

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 Materialized Views
 Materializing a view: create a physical table containing all the tuples
in the result of the query defining the view
 If relations used in the query are updated, the materialized view result
becomes out of date
 Need to maintain the view, by updating the view whenever the
underlying relations are updated.

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 Integrity Constraints
 Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the
database, by ensuring that authorized changes to the
database do not result in a loss of data consistency.
 A checking account must have a balance greater than
$10,000.00
 A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an
hour
 A customer must have a (non-null) phone number

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 Integrity Constraints on a Single Relation

 not null
 primary key
 unique
 check (P), where P is a predicate

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 Not Null and Unique Constraints

 not null
 Declare name and budget to be not null
name varchar(20) not null
budget numeric(12,2) not null
 unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)
 The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, …
Am
form a candidate key.
 Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary
keys).

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 The check clause

 check (P)

where P is a predicate

Example: ensure that semester is one of fall, winter, spring

or summer:

create table section (

course_id varchar (8),
sec_id varchar (8),
semester varchar (6),
year numeric (4,0),
building varchar (15),
room_number varchar (7),
time slot id varchar (4),
primary key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year),
check (semester in (’Fall’, ’Winter’, ’Spring’, ’Summer’))
);
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 Referential Integrity
 Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given
set of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in
another relation.
 Example: If “Biology” is a department name appearing in
one of the tuples in the instructor relation, then there
exists a tuple in the department relation for “Biology”.
 Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that
contain attributes A and where A is the primary key of S. A is
said to be a foreign key of R if for any values of A appearing
in R these values also appear in S.

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Given the following relational schema

Course (course-id, title, dept_name, credit)

Department (dept_name, building, budget)

Define SQL DDL for the above relational schema to implement the following
constraints
Course-id must not be null and must be unique
Dept_name must not be null and must be unique
If a dept_name is updated in department relation, it will update the
dept_name of all courses in the course relation
If a dept_name is deleted in department relation, it will delete all courses
of that department from the course relation
A dept_name cannot be inserted into course table that dept-_name is not
present in department table.

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 Cascading Actions in Referential Integrity

 create table course (

course_id char(5) primary key,
title varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20) references department
)
 create table course (
…
dept_name varchar(20),
foreign key (dept_name) references department
on delete cascade
on update cascade,
...
)
 alternative actions to cascade: set null, set default

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 Users Management
 There are following types of users
 Students (S1, S2, .............. Sn)
 Instructors (I1, I2, I3, ............. Im)
 Advisers (Ad1, Ad2, ....... Adk)
 Head of the Department (HoD1, HoD2 ...... HoDp)

 Students can add courses

 Advisors approve courses, delete advisee courses , add advisee
courses
 Instructors can add courses to be taught, delete courses already
selected to be taught
 Head of the department can add new courses, approve actions of
advisors and instructors

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 Authorization

Forms of authorization on parts of the database:

 Read - allows reading, but not modification of data.

 Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of
existing data.
 Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data.
 Delete - allows deletion of data.

Forms of authorization to modify the database schema

 Index - allows creation and deletion of indices.
 Resources - allows creation of new relations.
 Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation.
 Drop - allows deletion of relations.

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 Authorization Specification in SQL
 The grant statement is used to confer authorization

grant <privilege list>

on <relation name or view name> to <user list>
 <user list> is:
 a user-id
 public, which allows all valid users the privilege granted
 A role (more on this later)
 Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any
privileges on the underlying relations.
 The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on
the specified item (or be the database administrator).

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 Privileges in SQL
 select: allows read access to relation,or the ability to query
using the view
 Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select
authorization on the instructor relation:
grant select on instructor to U1, U2, U3
 insert: the ability to insert tuples
 update: the ability to update using the SQL update
statement
 delete: the ability to delete tuples.
 all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable
privileges

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 Revoking Authorization in SQL
 The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.

revoke <privilege list>

on <relation name or view name> from <user list>
 Example:

revoke select on branch from U1, U2, U3

 <privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee
may hold.
 If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege
except those granted it explicitly.
 If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by
different grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the
revocation.
 All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also
revoked.

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 Roles
 create role instructor;
 grant instructor to Amit;
 Privileges can be granted to roles:
 grant select on takes to instructor;
 Roles can be granted to users, as well as to other roles
 create role teaching_assistant
 grant teaching_assistant to instructor;
 Instructor inherits all privileges of teaching_assistant
 Chain of roles
 create role dean;
 grant instructor to dean;
 grant dean to Satoshi;

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 Authorization on Views
 create view geo_instructor as
(select *
from instructor
where dept_name = ’Geology’);
 grant select on geo_instructor to geo_staff
 Suppose that a geo_staff member issues
 select *
from geo_instructor;
 What if
 geo_staff does not have permissions on instructor?
 creator of view did not have some permissions on
instructor?

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