Air Compressor

Piston pin Connecting rod Crank pin

Gas out

Discharge Suction

DV Crank O
CV
Piston Shaft O

SV Balancing weight
Cylinder
block
 Compressor

Positive displacement Dynamic

Reciprocating Rotary Turbo-compressor Sector

Eccentric vane Roots blower Screw Centrifugal Axial Mixed

Classification of Compressors
(i) High-pressure compressor (80-1000 bars) Hyper compressor (above 1000 bars)
(ii)On the basis of capacity, compressors can be classified as: Low-capacity compressor (below 0.15 m3/sec.)
Medium capacity compressor (0.15 to 5 m3/sec.) High-capacity compressor (above 5 m3/sec.)
(iii)On the basis of pressure ratio, compressors can be classified as: Fan (Pressure ratio below 1.1)
Blower (Pressure ratio between 1.1 to 2.3) Compressor (Pressure ratio above 2.3)
(iv)On the basis of design and principle of operations, compressors can be classified as shown in Figure 10.1:
Positive displacement compressor: In this compressor, the pressure is raised by decreasing the volume of gas, i.e., positive displacement of gas.
Dynamic compressor: In this compressor, the kinetic energy imparted to the gas by the rota- tion of the rotor is converted into pressure energy
partly in the rotor and rest in the diffuser.
 P2

r e cI p rocat I n g c ompressors
3 2
C

1
D 0 P1

D O

TDC BDC
2

𝑃2𝑉 2− 𝑃1𝑉 1 𝑛
𝑊= +𝑃 2 𝑉 2 − 𝑃 1 𝑉 1= ( 𝑃 2 𝑉 2 − 𝑃1 𝑉 1 ) 2

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
3 2 2

[( ) ]
P2 2 T 2
𝑛−1
𝑛𝑚 𝑃

( ) [( ) ]
𝑛−1 2 𝑛
𝑛 𝑇2 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 1 −1 ¿ P2

¿ 𝑃 1 𝑉 1 −1 = 𝑃 1 𝑉 1 −1 𝑛−1 𝑃1
𝑛−1 𝑇 1 𝑛−1 𝑃1
P1 1
P1

¿
0 1

V
S
(a) (b)

(a) P-V and T-S Diagrams for Isentropic, Polytropic, and

Isothermal Compression, and (b) Isentropic
isentropic compression P2
53
T2
2

isothermal Compression
P1
0 4 1
T1

Effect of Clearance on Work Done VC VS

Work input per cycle  area 1  2  3  4

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the
ratio of actual free air delivered to the
 area 0  1  2  5  area 3  4  0  5 displacement of the compressor.
- v 
V1  V4 Vs V c  V
4
Vs 

Vs
 1 Vc V4
Vs 
𝑛
𝑃 3 𝑉 3 = 𝑃 4 𝑉 4𝑛
Vs
𝑉
( )
1
𝑝2 𝑐
𝑛 =
c
𝜂 𝑣 =1 +𝑐 − 𝑐 𝑉
𝑝1 s
 Multistage
Compression 3
Advantages of multistage compression P3 b

▶▶ There is little chance of lubrication troubles due to lowering HP

of maximum temperature.
▶▶ Leakage loss is minimized. P2 2
a
▶▶ There is a gain in volumetric efficiency.
LP
▶▶ More uniform torque with the small size of the flywheel can

be generated. P1 1

Assumption in multistage compression

The following assumptions are usually made in the V
(a)
calculation of work done in multistage
compression: P3
▶▶ For each stage, pressures during suction and delivery P2

remain constant. P1

▶▶ The index (n) in polytropic law is same in each stage of

compression. T
n
3
▶▶ Intercooling in each stage is done at constant pressure.
n 2
PV = C PV = C

▶▶ Low pressure and high-pressure cylinders handle the same

a 1

mass of air.
Work Done in Multistage Compression

[( ) ] [( ) ]
▶▶ There is no interstage pressure drop, i.e., exhaust pressure
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
of one stage 𝑛 𝑃 𝑛 𝑃
𝑊 equals the
𝑃 1 𝑉suction
S
2 𝑛 3 𝑛
= 1 − 1 + 𝑃 2 𝑉 a −1 (b)

pressure of the 𝑛− 1 stage. 𝑃 1

next 𝑛 −1 𝑃2
Work input in L.P. Work input in h.P.
 [ (( ) ) (( ) )]
𝑛−1 𝑛− 1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑅 𝑇1 −1 +𝑇 a −1
𝑛− 1 𝑃1 𝑃2

If P1, T1 and delivery pressure P3 are fixed, the optimum value of the intermediate pressure P2 for minimum work can be obtained by
setting the derivative dW/dP2= 0.

[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1

( ) 𝑃2 𝑛 1 𝑃3 𝑃3
1 1
𝑑𝑊 𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑃 2 𝑛 1 𝑛 −1 𝑃 3 −
𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
= 𝑅 𝑇 1× × +𝑇 𝑎 × × − =0 𝑇 1 × =𝑇 𝑎 × −
𝑑 𝑃 2 𝑛 −1 𝑛 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑃 2
2
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃2 2
𝑃2

√( )
𝑛
In general, if there are stages, the pressure ratio for each stage will 𝑃2 𝑇 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑃3
be given by =
𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4
= = =…=
𝑃 𝑁 +1 𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑃1
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃𝑁

[( ) ]
𝑛−1
𝑁𝑛 𝑃 𝑁+1 𝑁𝑛
For perfect cooling,
𝑊= 𝑅𝑇1 −1
𝑛− 1 𝑃1
𝑃 2= √ 𝑃 3 𝑃 1
 𝒬= 𝐶𝑝 + 𝐶𝑣
Heat rejected during compression
process
[ ( 𝜸 −𝑛
𝑛− 1 )] ( 𝑇 2 − 𝑇 1)

Mean Effective
Pressure,
for single acting reciprocating compressor

for double acting reciprocating compressor

r o t a r y compressors
Fixed Vane Type Compressors
Fixed vane

Discharge valve Discharge Suction

Suction Discharge

O

+ + + + +
+ Cylinder
block

Roller
Multiple Vane Type Rotary
c e n t r I f u g a l c ompressors V2 Vr2

For inlet velocity diagram, it has been assumed that Vf2 

gas enters the impeller eye in an axial direction, i.e., V2


u2 = .r2
the whirl component of absolute velocity, V1is zero.

Flow component of absolute velocity, Vf1 = V1
In general, we consider the flow of a gas through a
rotor of any shape, the rate of change of angular r2
V r1 V1 = Vf1

momentum is given by V 2r2  Gas

Vout1r1 m/sec/kg
u1

Gas intake (a) Velocity triangle at outlet (b) Velocity triangle at inlet
Eye of the impeller


Work done  V 2r2  V1r1   AsV1 
Impeller
Diffuser
passage
0

Volute
casing
a x I a l f l o w c ompressors
Surging
Surging is caused due to unsteady, periodic, and reversal flow of gas through the compressor when the
compressor has to operate at less mass flow rate than a predetermined value. Thus, when flow through the
compressor is less than a predetermined value, a surge or pulsation begins and air surges to and fro through
the whole compressor instead of giving a stream in one direction.
Choking
Mass flow rate reaches at a maximum value when the pressure ratio becomes unity. This gener- ally occurs
when the Mach number (ratio of gas velocity and sound velocity) corresponding to relative velocity at inlet
becomes sonic. The maximum mass flow rate possible in a compressor is known as choking flow. Choking
means fixed mass flow rate regardless of pressure ratio.
Stalling
The phenomenon of reduction in lift force at higher angles of incidence is known as stalling. It is defined as
an aerodynamic stall or the breakaway of the flow from the suction side of the blade aerofoil. The
breakaway of flow from the suction side may be due to lesser mass flow rate than designed value or due to
non-uniformity in blade profile.
p ower p l a n t e ngIneerIng
Thermal Power Plant
Generator
Boiler

Superheated steam

Exhaust steam
Water

Hot cooling water

Condensed water Cold cooling

water Cooling tower
Condenser

Boiler Mountings and Accessories

 TH

r e f r I g e r a t o r a n d h e a t pump TH
To keep warm the house

QH QH
CO R 
Desiredoutput Cooling effect
P Re quired input Work 
QLinput W in
Win Win
CO HP  Desiredoutput  Heating effect  R HP

P Re quired input Work

QHinput Win
COP  COP
HP R
QL QL

TL
TL
To keep cool the house

Tones of Refrigeration (TR): 1 tonne of refrigeration is

the rate of heat removal required to freeze a metric ton (1000
kg) of water at 0°C in 24 hours.
Based on the heat of fusion being 333.55 kJ/kg
TR = 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kJ/s.
Components of Refrigeration System
There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:
▶▶ Evaporator

▶▶ Compressor

▶▶ Condenser

▶▶ Expansion valve

▶▶ Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product in order for the

refrigeration cycle to
Types of successfully
operate Refrigerationeach
Systems
component must be present within the refrigeration
system.
Broadly, the refrigeration systems can be categorized as:
▶▶ Air-refrigeration system
▶▶ Vapor compression refrigeration system

▶▶ Absorption refrigeration system

Air-refrigeration
System Bell–Coleman Cycle or Reversed Brayton
Reversed Carnot Cycle
Cycle
P2
P2 3
4 3
QH
4 4 3
I s ot TH
herm
al
A di

3
P1
ab a

Ad

P T P T
tic

i ab

4
at
ic

1
2
Isot
herm TL
al 2 1 2
QL 1 P1 2
1

V S

COP of Refrigerator:
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇 2 − 𝑇 1 ) 𝑇2
COP =
Heat absorbed =
Heat absorbed =
Work supplied Heat rejected- 𝐶𝑝 { (𝑇 3 − 𝑇 2 ) − (𝑇 4 − 𝑇 1 )} 𝑇 3 −𝑇 2
Heat absorbed
𝑇 𝐿 ( 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ) 𝑇𝐿
=
𝑇 𝐻 ( 𝑆 2 − 𝑆1 ) −𝑇 𝐿 ( 𝑆 2 − 𝑆1 ) 𝑇𝐻−𝑇𝐿
Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

COP of Vapor Compression Cycle:

C
T
COP =
Heat extracted at low- Condenser
D
T
temperature Work supplied 1

to compressor
Expansion
Heat extracted from the system (i.e., absorbed in absorber) = Heat Valve Compressor

transfer during the process, A–B = refrigerating effect. T2

T A B

Q L  hB  h A

Work of compression, W  hC  hB Evaporator

R S

COP  hB  h A
hC  hB
Heat rejected from condenser,
Q H  W  Q L  hC  hB  hB  h A  h C  h A  hC  h D
Factors Affecting the Performance of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
(a) Sub-cooling: By passing the liquid refrigerant from the condenser through a heat exchanger through, which the cold vapor at suction
from the evaporator is allowed to flow in the reversed direction. This process sub-cools the liquid but superheats the vapor. Thus, COP is
not improved though refrigeration effect is increased. But, by making use of enough quantity of cooling water so that the liquid
refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature of saturation. In some cases, a separate sub cooler is also made use of for this
purpose. In this case, COP is improved.
(b) Superheating of Vapor: If the vapor at the compressor entry is in the superheated state, which is produced due to higher heat absorption
in the evaporator, then the refriger- ating effect is increased. However, COP may increase, decrease or remain unchanged depending
upon the range of pressure of the cycle.
(c) Change in Suction Pressure: The decrease in suction pressure decreases the refrigera- tion effect and at the same time increases the work
of compression. But, both the effects tend to decrease the COP.
(d) Change in Discharge Pressure: The increase in discharge pressure results in lower COP. Hence, the discharge pressure should be kept as
low as possible depending upon the temperature of the cooling medium available.
(e) Effect of Volumetric Efficiency of Compressor: The factors like clearance volume, pressure drop through discharge and suction valves,
leakage of vapor along the piston and superheating of cold vapor due to contact with hot cylinder walls, affects the vol- ume of the
vapor actuallybetween
Comparison pumped byVapour
the compressor. The volumetric
Compression Cycleefficiency of a compressor
and Reversed is defined
Carnot Cycleas;

▶ Vapor compression cycle requires more compression work than the Reversed Carnot cycle.
▶ No work is done during the throttling process in Vapor compression cycle but work is done in expansion process in
Reversed Carnot cycle.
▶ In vapor compression expansion process is irreversible whereas in Reversed Carnot cycle it is reversible.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vapour Refrigeration Systems over
Air-refrigeration Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
▶ ▶ Vapor refrigeration system has higher capital cost.
Vapor refrigeration system has higher COP than the Air refrigeration system.
▶ Vapor refrigeration system has easer controllable expansion process. ▶ In Vapor refrigeration, system leakage problem may occur.
▶ It has low running cost.
▶ It requires smaller evaporator.
Comparison between Vapour Compression Cycle and Reversed Carnot Cycle
▶ Vapor compression cycle requires more compression work than the Reversed Carnot cycle.
▶ No work is done during the throttling process in Vapor compression cycle but work is done in expansion
process in Reversed Carnot cycle.
▶ In vapor compression expansion process is irreversible whereas in Reversed Carnot cycle it is reversible.

Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

t y p e o f r e f r I g e ra n t s d omestIc r e f r I g e r a t o r
(a)HaloCarbons
CFC’s: R11, R12, R113, R114,
R115 HCFC’s: R22, R123
HFC’s: R134a, R404a, R407C,
R410a
(b)Inorganic Refrigerants
Carbon Dioxide, Water,
Ammonia, Air, Sulphur dioxide.
(c)Zeotropic Refrigerants: A stable mixture of two or several
refrigerants whose vapor and liquid phases retain identical
compositions over a wide range of temperatures.
(d)Hydrocarbon Refrigerants
Following hydrocarbon gases have been used as refrigerants in
industrial, commercial and domestic applications:
R170, Ethane (C2H6)
R290 , Propane (C3H3)
R600, Butane (C4H10)
R600a, Isobutane (C4H10)
Blends of the above Gases.
Internal Combustion Engines

c lassIfIcatIon o f I.C. e ngInes

There are several bases for classification of I.C.
Engines, some of the important bases can be
explained as: In-line V-type Opposed cylinder

▶ Number of strokes per cycle

▶ Nature of thermodynamic cycle

▶ Ignition systems

▶ Fuel used

▶ Arrangement of cylinders

▶ Cooling systems

▶ Fuel supply systems

X-type Radial
basIc s t r u c t u r e of I.C. engInes
Spark plug

A.Cylinder: Inlet valve

Exhaust
valve
B.Cylinder Head:
C.Cylinder Liner:
Fuel Exhaust
D.Piston:
E.Piston Rings: Combustion
Cylinder head
Piston rings
F.Water Jacket: chamber Water jacket

G.Connecting Rod: Piston

Gudge on pin

H.Crankshaft: Cylinder

I.Valves: Connecting rod

J.Inlet Manifold: Crank pin

K.Exhaust Manifold: Crank case

Crank shaft
L.Cams and Camshaft:
M.Spark Plug: Lubricant

N.Carburetor:
O.Fuel Pump and Injector Unit: Crankcase:
Flywheel:
Nomenclature
Intake Exhaust
A.Cylinder Bore (d): valve valve

B.Piston Area (A):

C.Stroke (L): Clearance
TDC TDC
D.Dead Centers: Bore
Stroke or
volume

E.Displacement/Stroke/Swept Volume (Vs): Stroke

displacement
volume
BDC
F.Clearance Volume (Vc):
F.Compression Ratio (rv): BDC

(a) (b)
w orkIng prIncIple o f I.C. engInes
1. Four-stroke Spark Ignition Engine
P 3 Isentropic
process

Qh

2
4
Qr Intake stroke (a) Compression stroke (b)

0 1

Power stroke Exhaust stroke

(c) (d)
 Injector
Four-stroke Compression Ignition Engine Injector Injector

P Q
2 h 3

End of the compression

4 Intake stroke (a) Compression stroke stroke (c)
Qr (b)

0 1
Injector Injector
V

Power or expansion
Exhaust stroke
stroke
(d) (e)
Two-stroke Spark Ignition Engine
Spark Spark
plug plug

P
Transfer Transfer
Exhaust port Exhaust port
3 P port port
Piston travel in
uncovering ports Expansion

2 4 Exhaust
opens Inlet Inlet Inlet
1 Compres opens port port
5
sion Ignition Inlet
0 Closes
Exhaust V (a) (b)
V V
C S closes
(a) (b) Spark
Ideal Actual plug

Transfer
Exhaust
port
port

Inlet
port
Two-stroke C.I. Engine
Injector
Exhaust valves closed
Fuel injector Supercharger Exhaust port
Intake ports are Exhaust valve Air
closed by piston closed

Exhaust valve
Intake ports are
closed by piston
Inlet port

Piston
(a) Compression (b) Injection
Connecting rod

Exhaust valves open

Exhaust valves Scavenging air

(closed)
Intake ports Intake ports
are closed by open
piston

Two-strokes deisel engine

(c) (d) Exhaust

Power
Comparison Between Four-stroke and Two-
stroke Engines
Four-stroke Engines Two-stroke Engines
1. The thermodynamic cycle is completed in four 1. The thermodynamic cycle is completed in two strokes
strokes of the piston and two revolutions of the of the piston and one revolution of the crankshaft. Thus,
crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is obtained in two one power stroke is obtained in one revolution of the
revolutions of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
2. Turning moment is not so uniform during all the four 2. Comparatively, turning moment is more uniform and
strokes and hence, the heavier flywheel is required. hence lighter flywheel can be employed.
3. The power produced from same size engine is less 3. The power produced from same size engine is more
than two-stroke engine due to one power stroke in than the four-stroke engine due to one power stroke in
two revolutions of the crankshaft. Or for same power each revolution of the crankshaft.
output engine required is heavier and bulkier.
4. Less cooling and lubrication is required due to one 4. Larger cooling and lubrication is required due to one
power stroke in two revolutions and hence less wears power stroke in each revolution and hence more wear
and tear occurs. and tear occurs.
5. It consists of valves and valve actuating mecha- 5. It has ports in place of valves.
nism such as cam, camshaft, rocker arm, spring,
valve, and valve seat.
6. It has higher volumetric efficiency as the time 6. Volumetric efficiency is lower due to lesser time
available for induction of charge is more. available for induction.
7. It has a higher thermal efficiency due to complete 7. It has a lower thermal efficiency due to the par- tial
combustion of the fuel. wastage of fuel through the exhaust port and
incomplete combustion.
S.I. Engines C.I. Engines
1. It is based on Otto cycle or 1. It is based on a Diesel cycle or
constant volume heat addition and constant pressure heat addition and
rejection cycle. constant volume heat rejection cycle. Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
2. A high volatile and high self- 2. Comparatively low volatile and low 1.In Otto cycle, heat added and 1.In Diesel cycle, Heat is added
ignition temperature fuel, i.e., self-ignition temperature fuel, i.e., rejected at constant volume. at constant pressure and heat
gasoline is used. diesel is used. 2.For the same compression ratio, rejected at constant volume.
3. A gaseous mixture of fuel and air 3. Fuel is injected at high pressure at the Otto cycle is more efficient than 2.The compression ratio of
is inducted dur- ing the suction end of compression stroke. A fuel that of Diesel cycle. Diesel cycle is more than that
stroke. A carburetor is necessary to pump and injector units are used. 3.Otto cycle is used in S.I. of the Otto cycle.
provide the mixture. Engines. 3.Diesel cycle is used in C.I.
4. Throttle controls the quantity of 4. The quantity of fuel is regulated in the Engines.
fuel-air mixture introduced. pump. Air quantity is not controlled.
There is quality control.
5. For combustion of the charge, it 5. Autoignition occurs due to the high-
requires an igni- tion system with a temperature of air resulting from high-
spark plug in the combustion compression.
chamber.
6. Compression ratio ranges from 6 6. Compression ratio ranges from 16 to
to 10. 20.
7. Due to light weight and 7. Due to heavy weight and
homogeneous combustion, they heterogeneous combus- tion, they are
are high-speed engines. comparatively low-speed engines.
8. It has a lower thermal efficiency 8. It has a higher thermal efficiency due
due to lower com- pression ratio to high- compression ratio and
but delivers more power for same delivers lesser power for the same
compression ratio. compression ratio.
v alve t ImIng d Iagrams Ignition
Exhaust Ex
closes occurs DC

pa
Intake Intake Exhaust

ns
opens TDC opens TDC closes
Valve overlaping

i on
20°

Spark Valve overlaping

Co m pressi o n
Inlet valve is Spark
open for Inlet valve is
10° 5°
open for Exhaust
Exhaust valve 15° 10°20°
30°
35° 35° port opens
is open for Exhaust
port closes
Compression

Exhaust valve is 43°

Compression
43° Inlet

Power
open for
Inlet port opens

Power
BDC
60° port closes I nl et n
p ort o p e
55°

Exh
aust p rt o p en
25° o
10° Intake
closes Exhaust
Exhaust opens Port Timing Diagram for Two-stroke S.I. Engines
Intake opens
closes BDC
Ignition
BDC occurs DC Ex
(b) High speed four-stroke engines

pa
(a) Low speed engines

ns
io
20°

n
C o m pre s si o n
Exhaust
port opens
Exhaust 35° 35°
port closes
43° 43°
Inlet
Inlet port opens
BDC
port closes
I nl e n
t p ort o p e
Ex h
a ust p ort o p en

Valve Timing Diagram for Four-stroke C.I. Engines

o t t o cycle
P 3 Isentropic P 3
process
Qh Thermal efficiency of Otto Cycle,
𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝛾ሺ 𝑇3 − 𝑇2ሻ − 𝑚𝐶𝛾ሺ 𝑇4 − 𝑇1ሻ 𝑚𝐶𝛾ሺ 𝑇4 − 𝑇1ሻ 𝑇1 ቀ 4 − 1ቁ
𝑇1
2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = 1− = 1− ;
2
𝑚𝐶𝛾ሺ 𝑇3 − 𝑇2ሻ 𝑚𝐶𝑣ሺ 𝑇3 − 𝑇2ሻ 𝑇
4 4
𝑇2 ቀ 3 − 1ቁ
𝑇2
Qr
0
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1
𝑉4 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑐𝑝
1 1
=൬ ൰ =൬ ൰ = ; where 𝛾 =
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑇4 𝑐𝑣
𝑇3 𝑇4
0
= ;
V 0 V
𝑇2 𝑇1
(a) Ideal P–V diagram (b) Actual P–V diagram

𝑇1
𝜂𝑘ℎ = 1 −
T 3 𝑇2
𝑉2 𝑉4
= ;
Qh

𝑉2 𝑉3
V = Constant 4
𝑉2 1−𝛾
𝑇2 = ൬ ൰ = ሺ 𝑟𝑘ሻ 1−𝛾
2
𝑉1
1
𝜂𝑑 = 1 − ሺ 𝑟𝑘ሻ1−𝛾 = 1 −
V = Constant

ሺ 𝑟𝑘ሻ 𝛾−1
1 Qr

0 s
(c) Ideal T–s diagram
 Power Transmission
Devices
b elt d rIve T1 = Tight strand tension

Driven pulley
or sheave
Velocity ratio is the ratio of the speed of the driven Driving pulley
or sheave
pulley to that of the driving pulley. Let N1 is rotational
speed of the driving pulley, T2 = Slack strand
tension
N2 is rotational speed of the driven pulley, Belt section
Pulley
D1 is diameter of driving section

pulley, D2 is diameter of
driven pulley, t is the
thickness of the belt.
i.e., ; where is very small in comparision to , therefore it can be
(b) V- (c) Round (d) Toothed
belt belt belt
negelected.
Type of Belt Cross-sections

Slip: The effect of slip is a decrease in the speed of belt on driving shaft and the driven
shaft.
Let ω1 is angular velocity of driving pulley,
ω2 is angular velocity of driven pulley,
S1 is percentage slip between driving pulley and belt,
S2 is percentage slip between driven pulley and belt,

Peripheral speed of the driving pulley = 1 1

and 𝜔 𝐷
2
Speed of belt on driving pulley = 1 1 ቂ ቃ
𝜔 𝐷 100−𝑆
S is total percentage slip.
1
2 100

Now, peripheral speed of driven pulley = 1 1 ቀ ቁቀ ቁ

This is also the speed of belt on driven pulley.
𝜔 𝐷 100−𝑆1 100−𝑆2
2 100 100
If 𝑆is total slip percentage, peripheral speed of driven pulley = ቀ ቁ
𝜔1𝐷1 100−𝑆
2 100
ቀ ቁቀ ቁ = ቀ ቁ
𝜔1𝐷1 100−𝑆1 100−𝑆2 𝜔1𝐷1 100−𝑆
2 100 100 2 100
or
or

Thus, velocity ratio,

Creep
𝑁2 𝐷1 𝐸 +√ 𝑠2
= ×
𝑁1 𝐷2 𝐸 +√ 𝑠1
Flat Belt
Drives
(a) Open belt drive (b) Crossed belt drive
(c) Quarter turn belt (d) Compound belt drive
J
drive
Open Belt Drive C


 N

Let L is length of belt for open drive, G A


H
B
r is the radius of the smaller pulley,
R is radius of larger pulley,
C is center distance between pulleys,
β is angle subtended by each common tangent on C

the center of the pulley (CD or EF),

∠𝐶𝐴𝐽= ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 𝛽
AB is the line joining the centers of pulleys.

𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 = 2[ArcGC+ 𝐶𝐷+ ArcDH] = 2ቂቀ − 𝛽ቁ 𝑟 + 𝐴𝑁+ ቀ + 𝛽ቁ 𝑅ቃ
2 2
= 𝜋(𝑅+ 𝑟) + 2𝛽(𝑅− 𝑟) + 2𝐶cos⁡𝛽
𝑅− 𝑟 1 1 𝑅− 𝑟 2
for small angle 𝛽,𝛽 = sin⁡𝛽 = and cos⁡𝛽 = ඥ 1 − sin2⁡𝛽 ≅ 1 − sin2⁡𝛽 = 1 − ൬ ൰
𝐶 2 2 𝐶
Putting the value of and in equation of , we get

( 𝑅 − 𝑟 )2
𝐿= 𝜋 ( 𝑅 +𝑟 ) + 2 𝐶 +
𝐶
Crossed Belt
Drive
Similar to open belt drive, let and be the pulley centers and F

and be the common tangents to the two pulleys as shown in 
C

Figure
Belt length, G B H
A
or, 
As since is very small. E 

D K

( ) ( )
2
1 2 1 𝑅 +𝑟 N
cos ß∧¿ 1 − ß =1 −
2 2 𝐶

[ ( )] [ ( )]
2
𝑅+ 𝑟 1 𝑅+𝑟
or , 𝐿∧¿ 𝜋 +2 (𝑅+ 𝑟)+ 2 𝐶 1−
𝐶 2 𝐶
𝐿∧¿ 𝜋 (𝑅 +𝑟 )+2 𝐶 +¿ ¿
Compound Belt Drives
¿

Drive
Driver Pulley
Follower Pulley n

4 Guide
1
pulley

2
 Let T1 is the tension in tight side of the belt, T + T

T2 is the tension in slack side of the belt, T1

  /2
θ is the angle of the lap of the belt over the
pulley,

𝑇is1coefficientµ of
µ friction between the belt and N
=𝑒 𝜃
pulley
𝑇 . 2

  /2
T2
In V _belt, = Where  is the angle made by V-section of the belt.
T
Power Transmission in
Belt Drive
 Fc
Let ρ is the density of belt materials,
Tc is centrifugal tension on the belt element in tight and slack
side,  
/2 /2
r is the radius of the pulley, t is the thickness of the  Tc
belt, b is the width of the belt,
is maximum allowable stress in the belt,
m is mass per unit length of the belt,
FC is the centrifugal force on the element,
V is the velocity of the belt, and Δθ is the angle of the
Total
lap. tension on tight side,

where is maximum allowable tension equal to

Total tension on slack side
Now, Power
For maximum power transmission,
r ope d rIve
or, Strand

or,
or,
Wire
Initial tension in the belt,
 g e a r d rIve
1. Gear Terminology Pressure angle
Circular pitch Face width
Pitch Point: The point of contact between pitch circles of Addendum of
Dedendum
two ears is known as pitch point. Addendum
mating gear
Tooth fillet
Pitch Circle: The circle passing through the point of Working depth

contacts of two gears is known as pitch circle. Form Pitch Whole depth
diameter diameter Clearance
h Diameter, D: Diameter of pitch circle is known as pitch diameter.
Base circle Outside diameter
diameter Root circle

cular Pitch, : It is the distance measured along the circumference of the pitch circle from
oint on one tooth of the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
metral Pitch, It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter.
dule, m: It is the ratio of pitch diameter to the number of teeth.

Gear Ratio: It is the ratio of a number of teeth on gear and pinion.

Velocity Ratio: It is the ratio of the angular velocity of the driving gear to driven gear.
Here, subscripts 1 and 2 are used for driving and driven gears, respectively.
Addendum Circle: It is a circle passing through the tips of the teeth.
Addendum: It is the radial height of tooth above the pitch circle. Its standard value is one module.
Dedendum Circle: It is a circle passing through roots of the teeth.
Dedendum: It is a radial depth of a tooth below the pitch circle. Its standard value is .
Full Depth of Teeth: It is the total depth of the tooth space, i.e., Full depth Addendum Dedendum module module .

Working Depth of Teeth: The maximum depth at which a tooth penetrates into tooth space of the mating gear is known as working
depth of teeth.
Space Width: It is the width of the space between two consecutive teeth on pitch circle. Pressure angle
Tooth Thickness: It is the thickness of the tooth measured along the pitch circle. Circular pitch Face width
Backlash: It is the difference between the space width and the tooth thickness along the pitch circle.
Dedendum
Addendum
Face Width: It is the length of tooth parallel to the gear axis. mating ge
Addendum Tooth fille
Top Land: It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
Working

Bottom Land: The surface of the bottom of the tooth between the adjacent fillets. Form Pitch Whole
diameter diameter Clearance
Face: It is the tooth surface between the pitch circle and the top land.
Base circle Outside diam
Flank: It is the curved portion of the tooth flank at the root circle. diameter Root circle

Pressure Angle, φ: The angle between the pressure line and the common tangent at the pitch point is known as the pressure angle or angle of obliquity.
Path of Contact or Contact Length: Locus of the point of contact of teeth of two mating gears from the beginning of the engagement to the end of
engagement is known as the path of contact or the contact length.
Path of Approach: Portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the engagement to the pitch point is known as the path of approach.
Path of Recess: Portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of engagement is known as the path of the recess.
Arc of Contact: Locus of points on the pitch circle from the beginning of the engagement to the end of engagement of two mating gears is known as
the arc of contact.
Arc of Approach: It is the portion of the arc of contact from the beginning of the engagement to the pitch point of two mating gears is known as the arc
of contact.
Arc of Recess: It is the portion of the arc of contact from the pitch point to the end of engage- ment to of two mating gears is known as the arc of the
recess. Contact ratio (Number of pair of teeth in contact)  Length
of arc of contact
 The law of gearing gives the condition for the tooth profiles for constant
angular velocity for two mating ears, which can be explained as: “If angular t
velocities of two mating gears remain constant, the common normal at the
M
point of the two teeth should always pass through a fixed point P which n

divides the line joining the centers in the inverse ratio of angular velocities of P
the gears”.  ON OP O O
1  2  2
 2 O 1M O 1P 1 N n2
Forms of Teeth
 
Involute Profile Tooth t
Cycloidal Profile Teeth 1 2
A1 A2
T T
T A P
Advantages of Involute Gears
C
1
P2 Rolling (i)Center distance can be varied within limit
tanent
P without a change in pressure angle which is
A’ A 3
not possible in cycloidal gears.
Pitch (ii)Pressure angle remains constant throughout
P’ P circle
Base
the engagement but in the case of cycloidal
B’ B
D
circle gears, pressure angle is maximum at the
beginning and end of engagement and mini-
mum at the pitch point.
Advantages of Cycloidal Gears (iii)The face and flank of involute teeth are
generated by a single curve wherein
(i)Due to wider flank, cycloidal gear is
cycloidal gears, epicycloids, and hypo-
stronger than involute gear for the same
cycloid are required for face and flank,
pitch.
respectively. Thus, involute teeth are easy to
(ii)Less wear occurs in cycloidal teeth.
manufacture than the cycloidal gear.
(iii)There is no phenomenon of
c las s I fI cat I on o f g e a r s
1. Parallel Shafts
Spur Gears
Helical Gears
Double Helical / Herringbone Gears
2. Intersecting Shaft

Bevel Gears (a) (b)

(a) Double Helical Gearing with Two
Hypoid Gears Spur Gear Pairs of Opposed Gears, (b)
Worm Gears Herringbone Gears having Opposed
Teeth Joined in the Middle.

Bevel Worm Gear

Gears Hypoid Gear
 COUPLINGS
r c
IgId o u p l I n g Flange

Advantages of Rigid Flange Coupling Bolt

(i)It has high torque transmission capacity. Shaft Shaft
(ii)It is easy to assemble and disassemble.
(iii)It is a simple design and easy to manufacture.
Disadvantages of Rigid Flange Coupling
(iv)It cannot tolerate misalignment between two shafts.
(v)It can be used only where the notion is free from shocks and
vibrations.
(vi)It requires more space than that of another coupling like muff
coupling.
f lex I b le b ushed c o u p l I n g
Advantages of Flexible Bushed Coupling
Hub
(i)It can bear 0.5 mm of lateral or axial misalignment and 1.5° of
Shaft
angular misalignment. Key
(ii)It prevents transmission of shock from one shaft to the other and
absorbs vibrations.
(iii)It is used for transmission of high torque.
(iv)It is easy to assemble and disassemble due to the simple design.
Brass bush
Disadvantages of Flexible Bushed Coupling
Pin
(v)Its cost is higher than the rigid flange coupling. Rubber
(vi)It requires more radial space. bush
u nI versal J oI n t
CLUTCHES
1.Single plate clutch or disc
clutch.
2.Multi-plate disc clutch.
3.Conical clutch.
4.Centrifugal clutch.
Single plate clutch or disc A
P dr
clutch.
Let W = axial load on the plate Pressure plate
T = torque transmitted by clutch r
C Spring
P = axial pressure intensity E S r
F r1
r1 and r2 = external and internal radii of friction plate 2
µ = coefficient of friction Input B D Output
Axial force on a small elemental ring of radius r shaft
shaft
and width dr, δW = P × 2πrdr
(b)
Case II: Uniform Wear
Clutch plate Splined hubCover
Frictional Fr = µδW = µ × P × 2πrdr G
Flywheel
force, δT = Fr × r = µ × P ×
Friction Normal force on the ring
Torque, 2πrdr × r = µP2πr2dr Total force on the friction plate,
(a) lining
there are two conditions: (i) Uniform pressure for new clutch or
plate,
and (ii) uniform
Casewear for old or weared
I: Uniform clutch plate.
Pressure
Putting the value of , we get

Putting the value of , we get

where is mean radius and equals to

where is mean radius and equals to

multI-plate dIsc c l u t c h Friction rings
The function of multi-disc clutch is similar to the single plate clutch but the
number of discs in the multi-disc clutch is more than one, i.e., ‘n’ as shown in
Figure Spring

Uniform Pressure
Driven shaft

[ ]
3 3
2 𝑟1 −𝑟2
𝑇= 𝑛𝜇𝑊 =𝜇 𝑛 𝑊𝑅
3 2
𝑟 −𝑟
1
2
2
Driving or
Where engine shaft

=-1 Disc

Uniform Wear Flywheel

Multi-disc Clutch

1
𝑇= 𝒏 𝝁 𝑾 ( 𝑟 1+ 𝑟 2 ) =𝜇 𝑛 𝑁𝑅
2
cone clutch centrIfugal c l u tc h
b Shoes

 F Spring

Fn

rm r
r 1
2
B
A

Cone Clutch

Torque for Uniform Pressure

centrifugal force
Spring force
Torque for Uniform Wear where is the angular speed of the shaft.
Torque,
where is a number of shoes.
BRAKE 
F = RN
P P
S
1. Block or shoe brake.
RN RN
2. Band brake. l l
R P r1 RN
3. Band and block brake. x x
N l
4. Internal expanding shoe  a
x F
 RN a 
brake. 2 RN P
2
 R
N
r r

C
(a (b) P l  x
(c)
RN  Normal reaction on the )
or N 
x
R
a
shoes P  Force applied on lever N 
P b if l  x 
x b
or
F  Frictional force R a
o R x  a
P N
r b
In Figure 16.8 (a), taking moment For anticlockwiserotationof P N
R x  a
b
about the pivot for clockwise drum,
In Figure16.8 (b), taking moment about pivot for clockwise rotation of
rotation of drum drum
P  l  x   R N  x    P  l  RN  x    RN  a  0
RN Pl o R x  a
RN  a  0 P N l
x r
For anticlockwiserotation, N a an P
RN x  a
R d l
P
l
x  a
Band Brake
Band brake consists of a band in the form of belt, rope
or steel band (Figure 16.9). When force is applied at T1 a

the free end of the lever, the brand is pressed against b

F
the external surface of the drum.
l
Braking torque, T = (T1 – T2) × r  r T
2

But  e , where T is tension on tight side

and T is tension in the slack side.

F acts in downward direction and drum rotates in

counterclockwise direction. O
F  l  T1  a  T2  b  0 T0 a

b  

Band and Block Brake l

RN
T0 T1
 
𝑇𝑛
( )
𝑛 
1 + 𝜇 ta n 𝜃 n
Tn F
R
= N R
𝑇0 1 − 𝜇 ta n 𝜃 N
(a (b)
)
Internal Expanding Shoe Brake
Cam
Drum

F F

Spring
+

Lining
O O
1 2
ROBOTICS
Input Output Input Output
Introduction (a) Linear Joint

r o b o t Anatomy
Output
Joints and Links: Input

Linear Joint:
Input
Orthogonal Joint: Output
(b) Orthogonal Joint

Intput Output

(c) Rotational Joint

Output
Intput Output Intput

(d) Twisting Joint (e) Revolving Joint

t h r e e d egree o f f reedom f o r r obot ’ s
w rIst

Attached to robot
arm

Roll Pitch
r o b o t c onfIguratIons
1.Polar Configuration:
T
2. Cylindrical Configuration: T
R

3.Cartesian Coordinate Robot:

4. Jointed-arm-robot: This robot has a human arm. Its (a) Polar Configuration (b) Cylindrical Configuration

arm has a shoulder joint and an elbow joint O 

O
and the arm can be swiveled about the base.
Possible configurations for this type include
TRR and VVR type.  
L
5. SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot
Arm).
(c) Cartesian Coordinate (d) Jointed Arm Robot
R

(e) SCARA Robot

Mechanical Measurement

t e m p e ra t u re m easurement
1. Thermocouple

2. Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)

R1 = R0 [1 + a (t – t0)]
3. Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices

4. Bimetallic Temperature Measurement Devices

5. Fluid-expansion Temperature Measurement Devices

Liquid in glass
thermometer

6. Change-of-state Temperature Measurement Devices

p ressure m easurement
Pressure

Local atmospheric
Gauge pressure
Absolute Pressure: It is the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Absolute Vacuum (negative gauge)

Atmospheric
Pabs Pgauge 
Absolute

Manometers Patmospheric
Air
P1 P2
Fluid D

h
Diameter, D
Diameter, d In Figure (a),
2
A
h Datum line
z
2 the pressure of the fluid can be measured as:
B
1
C P  gh2;
z1
where  is liquid density in manometer
Manometer

(a) Manometer Measuring (b) Manometer Measuring the Pressure In Figure (b),
the Pressure of a Fluid Difference between Two Fluids
P1 Diameter, d
P2 P1  P2  gz2; if D  d
In Figure (c),
Diameter, D P  gz2  gh sin 
aleer
Scead z2
r
Datum line
z1

(c) Inclined Tube Manometer

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge 0
5 3

10
2

6
Gear Hair spring 25 4

15
6
50

9
20
8
INGINE
PULL PU
Pointer ACUUM TESTE
1

25
76 R
Link

12
CM/VAC
KG/CM 2

Sector

30
PSI
15
IN/SEC

and pinion
Bourdon
tube
Stationary
socket

Pressure
connection
v e l o c I t y m easurement Manometric
liquid
Velocity Measurement of Fluid with Pitot Tube Manometric
liquid
1
( 𝑝 𝑜 −𝑝 ) = 2 𝜌 𝑉 2 h
h
1 Static tap

( 𝑜 ) ( 𝑚 )
𝑝 −𝑝 = 𝜌 − 𝜌 𝑔h = 𝜌𝑉2 Pitot tube
2
V
Static tap

√ 2 ( 𝜌 𝑚 − 𝜌 ) 𝑔h Pitot tube
V
𝑉=
𝜌
Hot Wire Anemometer
 f l o w m easurement
(a)Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable
area),
(b)Inferential (turbine type),
(c)Electromagnetic, p2
A2
(d)Positive displacement (integrating), V2
(e)fluid dynamic (vortex shedding), z2

(f)Anemometer, p
1
A1
(g)ultrasonic, and V1
(h)Mass
Flow flowmeter
Measurement (Coriolis).
Through Velocity of Fluid Over Known Area
z1

Orificemeter
Rotameter

From Bernoulli's Equation

where is the specific weight of the fluid. For Datum

, Since flow is incompressible, hence Thus,

2 =
1
√ (1 −𝑘 4
) √ 2 𝑔 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝜌
where is ratio of diameters at section 2 and
Volume of flow,
Orificemeter
Orifice plate

Flow
profile

𝒬= 𝐴2 𝑉 2 =
C d 𝐴2
√ ( 1− 𝑘
4
) √ 2 𝑔 ( 𝑝1 − 𝑝 2 )
𝜌 d1 d2

Vena contracta
Where Cd is known as coefficient of discharge; its value
ranges from 0.6 to 0.7.
Rotameter p
1
Float

Tapered
pipe

p
2
Orifice
area
s t raI n m easurement
B
B

a=
FNA
FN FN
Strain Gauge B
Cross-sectional A

R / R R / R
GF  
L/ L 

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around Solder
2. tabs
Active grid
length
Carrier

Bonded Metallic
Strain Gauge
f o r c e m easurement F

The longitudinal strain developed in the load cell would

be compression in nature and is given by:

where F is the force applied,

A is the cross-sectional area and Y is Young’s 1 3
4
modulus of elasticity. 2
The strain gages 1 and 3 will experience this strain,
while for 2 and 4 the strain will be
Load Cell with Four
Where  is poisson’s ratio Strain Gauges

Cantilever Beam F

1 [ ] 2

3 [ ] 4 b
where l  Length of the beam
t  Thickness of the cantilever t
b  Width of the beam
L
E  Young’s modulus of the material
t o r q u e m easurement
L
Prony Brake Dynamometer Nut
Spring S

Lever
Torque, T =F  R =W  L
S
Counter
Rope Brake Dynamometer weight Blocks
W
R
S Spring balance Pulley
Wooden
blocks F
Rope

D
+

Cooling
water
Dead weight
(W )

Rope Brake
Torque Measurement by Pointer and Scale

Pointer
Scale

L
T
b
Where, L is the length of the shaft;
J is polar moment of inetrtia; and
Shaft a
G is modulus of rigidity of shaft material. T
b

Thank you