Subject Name: Computer Networks

Module 1 : Introduction

Faculty Name :Dr. Savita R. Bhosale

Index

Lecture 1- Introduction: Basic Concepts and Network models 04

Lecture 2- Classification of Network, entities & layers 47

Lecture 3- Reference models: layer details of OSI 72

2
MODULE 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

Course Objectives
• To study the basic taxonomy and terminology of the computer networking and
enumerate the layers of OSI model and TCP/IP model

Course Outcomes
• On successful completion of course learner will be able to:

• Explore the fundamental concepts computer networking and compare ISO – OSI model
with TCP/IP model

3 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

 Unit No: 1 Unit Name:
Introduction

Lecture No: 1
Basic Concepts and Network models
Objective of the Course

 Understand how two computers in the Internet talk to each other

 Go through the basic functionalities of the computer networks
 Learn how to program the network
 Learn the future of the computer network – Do we need any further changes in
the design??

Functionalities Network Protocols

Architecture

5 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

 What is a network?

6 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Network

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links.

 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending

and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

 A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can transport a
signal carrying information

7 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

What is Computer Network?
 A collection of autonomous computers .

 Interconnected by a single technology.

 Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange

information.

 The connection may be via

 a copper wire
 fiber optics
 microwaves
 infrared
 communication satellites

 Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms.

8 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Why do We Need a Computer Network ?

A network is a way to connect

computers for :

 Communication
 Data exchange
 Resource sharing

Most companies have PCs connected to

form a network in their offices

9 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Contd..

Three of the most important

benefits that are brought by
network include the following:

 It allows many users to access the

same programs and data
simultaneously
 It makes electronic
communications easier
 It allows users to share peripheral
devices, such as printers and Video conferencing is available in the
scanners network environment

10 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Basic Requirements for Establishing a Computer
Network

The basic requirements of a network are:

 Each computer must have a network card

 Network protocol
 A hub or a router
 Cables or microwaves
 Network operating system

11 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Network Interface Card (NIC)

 In a network, each computer

must have a network
interface card to connect to
other computers and devices.
 In a wireless connection, a A network cable
wireless adapter is required. is plugged into
the network
interface card
and physically
connects a
computer to a
network

The main function of a network interface card is to convert data of a

computer into electrical signals

12 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Protocols

Networks are governed by protocols, which are rules for sending and
receiving data. Devices on the network must be able to “talk the same
language ” or use the same protocol.
Two common protocols used today are:

 NetBEUI : It is a protocol that broadcasts messages to every

computer on the network.
 TCP/IP : It is the protocol of the Internet and is required on any
computers that communicate across the Internet. It is a very powerful
protocol to connect every computer in the world.

13 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Connecting Devices

A connecting device acts as a switching board for transmitting data from one
computer to another.

Hub

Computer Computer Computer Computer

A network hub is used to connect different computers together by joining all the
network cables.

14 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Connecting Devices

Connecting Device Functions

Hub A hub is a device that connects all network cables together. We can
think of the hub as being a joining point of all network media.
Bridge A bridge is a device that connects different networks together, e.g.
connecting an electrical network to an optical network, or a wired
network to a wireless network.
Router A router is a sophisticated device that connects different networks.
Network data is routed to different networks based on the rules that
are programmed in the router. We can think of a router as a kind of
highway roundabout for data traffic.
Access point An access point is a station that transmits and receives data in a
wireless network. It connects users to other users within the network.
Each access point can serve multiple users within a defined network
area. When users move beyond the range covered by

15 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Types of Communication Media

 In a wired network, data is

transmitted through physical
media, mostly cables, such as
twisted-pair cable , coaxial
cable and fibre-optic cable.
 In a wireless network, data is
transmitted through
microwave.

A fibre-optic cable is a thin strand of glass that

transmits pulsating beams of light instead of
electric current.

16 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Network Operating System (NOS)

A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that has the

ability to control the networking components of a computer system.
It also provides services such as:

 Printer sharing
 File sharing
 Database sharing
 Application sharing
 The ability to manage a naming directory for the network

17 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Simple Physical Topologies

 Physical topology: physical layout of nodes on a network

 Three fundamental shapes:
 Bus

 Ring

 Star

 Mesh

 May create hybrid topologies

 Topology integral to type of network, cabling infrastructure, and transmission
media used
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F35sSPTahS8

18 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Bus

 A Bus topology consists of a single cable—called a bus— connecting all nodes on a

network without intervening connectivity devices
 Single cable connects all network nodes without intervening connectivity devices
 Devices share responsibility for getting data from one point to another
 Terminators stop signals after reaching end of wire
 Prevent signal bounce

 Inexpensive, not very scalable

 Difficult to troubleshoot, not fault-tolerant

19 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Bus (continued)

 A Bus topology consists of a single cable—called a bus— connecting all nodes

on a network without intervening connectivity devices

20 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Advantages of Bus Topology

 Works well for small networks

 Relatively inexpensive to implement
 Easy to add to it

21 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Management costs can be high

 Potential for congestion with network traffic

22 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Ring

23 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Simple Physical Topologies

 Ring topology
 Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the entire network
forms a circle
 One method for passing data on ring networks is token passing

 Active topology
 Each workstation transmits data

24 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Advantages of Ring Topology

 Easier to manage; easier to locate a defective node or cable problem

 Well-suited for transmitting signals over long distances on a LAN
 Handles high-volume network traffic
 Enables reliable communication

25 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Expensive
 Requires more cable and network equipment at the start
 Not used as widely as bus topology
 Fewer equipment options

 Fewer options for expansion to high-speed communication

26 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Star

27 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Simple Physical Topologies

 Star topology
 Every node on the network is connected through a central device

28 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Star (continued)

 Any single cable connects only two devices

 Cabling problems affect two nodes at most

 Requires more cabling than ring or bus networks

 More fault-tolerant

 Easily moved, isolated, or interconnected with other networks

 Scalable

 Supports max of 1024 addressable nodes on logical network

29 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Advantages of Star Topology

 Good option for modern networks

 Low startup costs
 Easy to manage
 Offers opportunities for expansion
 Most popular topology in use; wide variety of equipment available

30 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Hub is a single point of failure

 Requires more cable than the bus

31 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Hybrid Physical Topologies: Star-Wired Ring

32 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Star-Wired Bus

33 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Mesh Topology

34 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Hybrid Topology

35 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Logical Topologies

 Logical topology: how data is transmitted between nodes

 May not match physical topology

 Bus logical topology: signals travel from one network device to all other devices
on network
 Required by bus, star, star-wired physical topologies

 Ring logical topology: signals follow circular path between sender and receiver
 Required by ring, star-wired ring topologies

36 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

 Uses of Computer Network

37 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Uses of Computer Networks

 Business Applications
 Home Applications
 Mobile Users
 Social Issues

38 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Business Applications of Networks

 A network with two clients and one server.

39 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Business Applications of Networks

• The client-server model involves requests and replies.

Initiates Passive mode

(Listening)

40 Lecture 1: : Basic Concepts and Network models

Home Network Applications

 Access to remote information

 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce

41 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Access to remote information

• Remote Data/File Access

42 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Home Network Applications

 In peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

43 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Home Network Applications

• Interactive communication / entertainment

44 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models

Home Network Applications

 Some forms of e-commerce.

45 Lecture 1 : Basic Concepts and Network models

Mobile Network Users

 Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing.

46 Lecture 1 : Basic Concepts and Network models

Unit No: 1 Unit Name:
Introduction

Lecture No: 2
Classification of
Networks, entities &
layers
Classification of networks

 Personal area networks.

 Local area networks.

 Metropolitan area networks.

 Wide area networks.

 The internet.

48 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Network Classification

Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

49 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Personal Area Network

 Bluetooth PAN configuration

50 Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and Network models, classification of networks

Local Area Networks

 Wireless and wired LANs. (a) 802.11. (b) Switched Ethernet.

51 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Metropolitan Area Networks

 A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

52 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Metropolitan Area Networks

53 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Wide Area Networks

 WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia

54 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Wide Area Networks

 WAN using a virtual private network.

55 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Wide Area Networks

 WAN using an ISP network.

56 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Wide Area Networks

• Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet

57 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

 Wide Area Networks

• A stream of packets from sender to receiver.

58 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Wide Area Networks

59 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQEcZD939jI

60 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Network

61 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Activity

• You have two computers connected by an Ethernet hub at home. Is this a LAN, MAN or a
WAN? Explain your answer?

62 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Why layering?

Dealing with complex systems:

 Explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex system’s pieces.
– layered reference model .

 Modularization eases maintenance, updating of system.

– change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest of system.
– e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system.

63 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Layered tasks

As an example, let us consider two friends who communicate through postal

mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were
no services available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter

64 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Layered architecture

 Layered architecture simplifies the network design.

 It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.

 The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.

 Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.

 The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control
and timing for the handshake between layers.

65 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Layers and Communications

 Interaction only between adjacent layers

 layer n uses services provided by layer n-1
 layer n provides service to layer n+1
 Bottom layer is physical media
 Top layer is application

66 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Protocol Layers

 Computer network architecture is complex

– Too many components
– How to understand its architecture?
– How to allow developers and users to deal with this complexity?
 Solution 
– Computer networks functions are designed and implemented as layers
– Layers are logical groupings of all the processes required for effective
data exchange
– Layer n-1 provides some service to the layer n through a well-defined
interface (boundary between each two layers)
– Each interface defines what information, operations, and services a
layer must provide for the layer above it.
– These layers are distributed across all nodes in the network

67 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Layers, protocols, and interfaces

68 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Network Entities and Layers

Layers are distributed across all entities in the network.

Important entities include hosts(PCs) and packet switches (hubs,
switches/bridges, routers).
Some devices do not use all layers.
Complexity of an entity increases with the number of layers that it supports.

69 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Advantages of Layered Architecture

 Breaks the complicated communication process into layers of simpler

processes which allows easier hardware or software implementation.

 Each layer implements distinct set of protocols (functions) which means that :
 The implementation of each layer can be done independently of the other
layers.
 This allows different manufacturers to supply the hardware and software
needed to the different layers  encourages collaboration & Competition.

 Well-defined layers interfaces allow changing the implementation of one layer

with a completely different implementation without affecting the other layers

70 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities &

layers
Standard Protocol Models

 The protocols of the various layers are called protocol stack

 Two Standard Protocol models (stack) exist:

– Open System Interconnect (OSI)
– Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

71 Lecture 2: Classification of Network, entities & layers

Unit No: 1 Unit Name:
Introduction

Lecture No: 3 Reference

models: layer details of OSI
Layering in Networked computing

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Protocols at each layer

73 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Learning outcomes

Understand the need of layering in Networked computing

Understand the OSI model and the TCP/IP model

Understand the function protocols and their role at each layer.

TCP protocol

UDP protocol

Understand the role of header in communication between layers

Understand how data sent from one host arrive to the target host.

74 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

What is layering in Networked computing?

Breaks down communication into smaller, simpler parts.

75 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Why a layered model?

Easier to teach communication process.

Speeds development, changes in one layer does not affect how the other
levels works.
Standardization across manufactures.

Allows different hardware and software to work together.

Reduces complexity

76 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

The OSI Model

OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".

OSI model was first introduced in 1984 by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one computer to another.
Not HOW it should be done.
Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for transmittal (to be
transmitted)
In the OSI model, The specification needed
are contained in 7 different layers that interact with each other.

77 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

What is “THE MODEL?”

Commonly referred to as the OSI reference model.

The OSI model

 Is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets from one
user’s computer to another.

It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our hardware and
software talks nicely to each other.

It aids standardization of networking technologies by providing an organized

structure for hardware and software developers to follow, to insure there
products are compatible with current and future technologies.

78 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

7 Layer OSI Model

Why use a reference model?

Serves as an outline of rules for how protocols can be used to allow
communication between computers.
Each layer has its own function and provides support to other layers.

Other reference models are in use.

Most well known is the TCP/IP reference model.
We will compare OSI and TCP/IP models

As computing requirements increased, the network modeling had to evolve to meet
ever increasing demands of larger networks and multiple venders.

Problems and technology advances also added to the demands for changes in
network modeling.

79 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Evolution of the 7-Layers

Single Layer Model - First Communication Between Computer Devices

Dedicated copper wire or radio link
Hardware & software inextricably intertwined
Single specification for all aspects of communication

Hardware Hardware
& &
Software Software

DEVICE A DEVICE B

80 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Evolution of the 7-Layers (1)

Two Layer Model

Problem: Applications were being developed to run over ever-increasing
number of media/signaling systems.
Solution: Separate application aspects from technical (signaling and routing)
aspects
Application Layer: Concerned with user interface, file access and file transfer

Application
Application
Technical Technical
Standards Standards

81 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

1
Evolution of the 7-Layers (3)

Application Application

Network Network
Data-Link Data-Link
Physical Physical
 Four Layer Model - Network connectivity inherently requires travel over
intermediate devices (nodes)
 Technical Standards Level divided into Network, Data-link and Physical Layers

82 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

1
 Evolution of the 7-Layers (3) cont.

 Physical Layer
 Describes physical aspects of network: cards, wires, etc
 Specifies interconnect topologies and devices
 Network Layer
 Defines a standard method for operating between nodes
 Address scheme is defined (IP)
 Accounts for varying topologies
 Data-Link
 Works with Network Layer to translate logical addresses (IP) into hardware
addresses (MAC) for transmission
 Defines a single link protocol for transfer between two nodes

83 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Evolution of the 7-Layers (4)

Application Application

Transport Transport
Network Network
Data-Link Data-Link
Physical Physical
 Five Layer Model – Increase Quality of Service (QOS)
Variable levels of data integrity in network
Additional data exchanges to ensure connectivity over worst conditions
Became the Transport Layer
1

84 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Evolution of the 7-Layers (5)

Application Application
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data-Link Data-Link
Physical Physical

Six Layer Model - Dialogue Control and Dialogue Separation

Means of synchronizing transfer of data packets
Allows for checkpointing to see if data arrives (at nodes and end stations)
Became Session Layer
1

85 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Evolution of the 7-Layers (6)

Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data-Link Data-Link
Physical Physical

The Seven Layer OSI Model - Addition of Management and Security

Standardizing notation or syntax for application messages (abstract syntax)
Set of encoding rules (transfer syntax)
Became the Presentation Layer
1

86 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

What Each Layer Does

87 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Application Layer

Gives end-user applications access to network resources

Where is it on my computer?
Workstation or Server Service in MS Windows

88 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Presentation Layer

89 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Session Layer
Allows applications to maintain an ongoing session

Where is it on my computer?
Workstation and Server Service (MS)
Windows Client for NetWare (NetWare)

90 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Transport Layer

Provides reliable data delivery

It’s the TCP in TCP/IP
Receives info from upper layers and segments it into packets
Can provide error detection and correction

91 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.

92 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Network Layer

Provides network-wide addressing and a mechanism to move packets between

networks (routing)
Responsibilities:
Network addressing
Routing
Example:
IP from TCP/IP

93 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.

94 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Network Addresses

Network-wide addresses

Used to transfer data across subnets

Used by routers for packet forwarding

Example:

IP Address
Where is it on my computer?

TCP/IP Software

95 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Data Link Layer

Places data and retrieves it from the physical layer and provides error detection
capabilities

96 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.

97 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

MAC (Media Access Control)

Gives data to the NIC
Controls access to the media through:
CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
Token passing

LLC (Logical Link Layer)

Manages the data link interface (or Service Access Points (SAPs))
Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). If
the packet is bad the LLC will request the sender to resend that particular
packet.

98 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Physical Layer

Determines the specs for all physical components

Cabling

Interconnect methods (topology / devices)

Data encoding (bits to waves)

Electrical properties

Examples:

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

Wireless (IEEE 802.11b) 3

99 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for the movement of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.

10 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

0
Physical Layer (cont’d)

What are the Physical Layer components on my computer?

NIC
Network Interface Card
Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number permanently burned into it at
the manufacturer.
The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a computer
Cabling
Twister Pair
Fiber Optic
Coax Cable

10 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

1
How Does It All Work Together

Each layer contains a Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact between corresponding layers.
(Peer-to-peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture
that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged,
equipotent participants in the network.)

Data is handled by the top three layers, then Segmented by the Transport
layer.

The Network layer places it into packets and the Data Link frames the packets
for transmission.

Physical layer converts it to bits and sends it out over the media.

The receiving computer reverses the process using the information contained
in the PDU. 2

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

102
 How Does It All Work Together (1)

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

103
OSI Layers

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

104
The OSI reference model
 Data Encapsulation

At each layer in the protocol stack

Outgoing data is packaged and identified for delivery to the layer
underneath
PDU – Packet Data Unit – the “envelop” information attached to a packet at a
particular protocol
e.g. header and trailer
Header
PDU’s own particular opening component
Identifies the protocol in use, the sender and intended recipient
Trailer (or packet trailer)
Provides data integrity checks for the payload

106 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

 Encapsulation example: E-mail

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

107
Encapsulation

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

108
An exchange using the OSI model

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

109
Summary of layers

Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

110
The Postal Analogy

A- Write a 20 page letter to a foreign country.

P- Translate the letter so the receiver can read it.

S- Insure the intended recipient can receive letter.

T- Separate and number pages. Like registered mail, tracks delivery and requests
another package if one is “lost” or “damaged” in the mail.
N- Postal Center sorting letters by zip code to route them closer to destination.
D- Local Post Office determining which vehicles to deliver letters.
P- Physical Trucks, Planes, Rail, autos, etc which carry letter between stations.

11 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

1
Remembering the 7 Layers

7 - Application All
6 - Presentation People
5 - Session Seem
4 - Transport To
3 - Network Need
2 - Data Link Data
1 - Physical Processing

11 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

2
Acitivity Time…..

1. In the following pairs of OSI protocol layer/sub-layer and its functionality,

the INCORRECT pair is
A. Network layer and Routing
B. Data Link Layer and Bit synchronization
C. Transport layer and End-to-end process communication
D. Medium Access Control sub-layer and Channel sharing

2. Which of the following units of data does the data-link layer send from the
network layer to the physical layer of the OSI model?

3. HTTP, FTP, and Telnet work at which layer of the OSI model?

4. Which OSI layer is responsible for packet forwarding?

11 Lecture 3 : Reference models: layer details of OSI

3
Thank You