Class XI Chemistry

UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Early Attempts of Classification:-
• Döbereiner’s Triads
• Newlands’ Law of Octaves
• Lothar Meyer's Curve
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table

By:- Vinod Kumar

WHY DO WE NEED TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS ?
• In 1800, only 31 elements were known.
• By 1865, the number of identified elements had more than
doubled to 63.
• At present 118 elements are known it is very difficult to study
individually the chemistry of all these elements and their
innumerable compounds individually.
• To ease out this problem, classification of elements is necessary.
Döbereiner’s Triads-Law of Triads
• He arranged the elements in a group of three in the order of
increasing atomic masses in such a way tha the atomic mass of the
middle element is roughly the average of the atomic masses of the
other two elements.
• Döbereiner could identify only three triads from the elements known
at that time. Hence, this system of classification into triads was not
found to be useful.
Triad:- Group of 3
elements
 Döbereiner’s Triads-Law of Triads
Triad→ Lithium Sodium Potassium

Atomic mass→ 7 23 39

Triad→ Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Atomic mass→ 35.5 80 127

Triad→ Calcium Strontium Barium

Atomic mass→ 40 88 137

Newlands’ Law of Octaves
• He arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and noted that
every eighth element had properties similar to the first element.
• The relationship was just like every eighth note that resembles the first in octaves
of music.

• Newlands’s Law of Octaves seemed to be true only for elements up to calcium.

Lothar Meyer's Curve:
1) Lothar Meyer plotted the physical properties such as atomic
volume, melting point and boiling point against atomic
weight(mass) and obtained a periodically repeated pattern.
(elements having similar properties will occupy the same
position in the curve).
2) Also notice that the elements occupying the corresponding
position of the curve shows similar chemical properties.
Lothar Meyer's Curve:
Important features:
1) Alkali metals such as Na, K, Rb which
have similar properties occur as peaks of
the curve. He didn't mention alkaline
earth metals.
2) Halogen elements like F, Cl, Br which
have similar properties occur at the rising
or the ascending part of the curve.
3) Noble gasses such as Ne, Ar, Kr which
have similar properties occur just before
the alkali elements.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law :
• The properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic
weights.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

• Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns
of a table in order of their increasing atomic weights in such a way that
the elements with similar properties occupied the same vertical column
or group.
• Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’
and horizontal rows called ‘Series’ .
• 63 elements were known at that time
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Achievements of
Mendeléev’s Periodic
Table
• He ignored the order of

atomic weights and

placed the elements
with similar properties
together.
• For example, iodine
(126.9) was placed in
Group VII along with
fluorine, chlorine,
bromine because of
similarities in properties
Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table .He proposed that some of the
elements were still undiscovered .
• For example, both gallium and germanium were unknown at the time
• He left the gap under aluminium and a gap under silicon, and called these
elements Eka-Aluminium and Eka-Silicon. And also described some of their
general physical properties.
• When noble gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group
(Zero group) without disturbing the existing order.
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification
• He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table.
• There is no separate position for isotopes as isotopes are the atoms of the
same element having different atomic masses.
• Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one
element to the next. So it was not possible to predict how many elements
could be discovered between two elements
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Modern Periodic Law
• Modern Periodic Table
• Nomenclature Of Elements With Atomic Numbers > 100

By:- Vinod Kumar

 Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number
is a more fundamental property of an element
than its atomic mass

Modern Periodic Law

• The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.

Periodic Function:-
Repetition of the properties after a
fixed number of elements in increasing
atomic number is referred as periodic
function
Modern Periodic Table:-
• “Long form” of the Periodic Table of the elements is the most convenient and
widely used.
• The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns, groups.
• Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged
in groups.
• According to the recommendation of International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC), the groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
• There are altogether seven periods. The period number corresponds to the highest
principal quantum number (n) of the elements in the period.
• In this form of the Periodic Table, 14 elements of both sixth and seventh periods
(lanthanoids and actinoids, respectively) are placed in separate panels at the
bottom.
Modern Periodic
Table
 Nomenclature Of Elements With Atomic Numbers > 100
• Both American and Soviet scientists claimed credit for discovering element 104.
• The Americans named it Rutherfordium whereas Soviets named it Kurchatovium.

• To avoid such problems, the IUPAC has made recommendation that until a new
element’s discovery is proved, and its name is officially recognised, a systematic
nomenclature be derived directly from the atomic number of the element using
the numerical roots for 0 and numbers 1-9.
• The roots are put together in order of digits which make up the atomic number
and “ium” is added at the end.
• Later permanent name and symbol are given by a vote of IUPAC representatives
from each country.
• The permanent name might reflect the country (or state of the country) in which
the element was discovered, or pay tribute to a notable scientist.
 Mendelevium
(
Dmitri Mende
leev
)

Rutherfordium
(
Ernest Ruther
ford
)
Copernicium
(
Nicolaus Co
pernicus
)
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Electronic Configurations Of Elements And The Periodic
Table

By:- Vinod Kumar

 Electronic Configurations of Elements in Periods
• The period indicates the value of n for the outermost or valence shell.
• In other words, successive period in the Periodic Table is associated with
the filling of the next higher principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc.).
• The number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic
orbitals available in the energy level that is being filled.
• The 4f and 5f-inner transition series of elements are placed separately in
the Periodic Table to maintain its structure and to preserve the principle of
classification by keeping elements with similar properties in a single
column.
 Electronic Configurations of Elements
Period Filling of electrons in No. of No. of Outer shell electronic configuration
No. orbitals in Periods
orbitals filled Elements
(n) Starts Ends First Element Last Element
from with

1 1s 1s 1 2 1 H – 1s1 2 He – 1s2
2 2s 2p 1+3=4 8 3 Li – 1s2 2s1 10 Ne – 1s22s22p6
3 3s 3p 1+3=4 8 11 Na – 1s22s22p63s1 18 Ar – 1s22s22p63s23p6
4 4s 3d 4p 1+5+3=9 18 19 K – 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 36 Kr - 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
5 5s 4d 5p 1+5+3=9 18 37 Rb –[Kr] 5s1 54 Xe –[Kr] 4d105s25p6
6 6s 4f 5d 6p 1+7+5 +3 = 16 32 55 Cs –[Xe] 6s1 86 Rn –[Xe] 4f145d106s26p6
7 7s 5f 6d 7p 1+7+5 +3 = 16 32 87 Fr – [Rn] 7s1 118 Og– [Rn] 5f146d107s27p6
Transition Elements (d-Block Elements)
Inner Transition Elements
3d Series :- 21Sc – 30Zn
(f-Block Elements)
4d Series:- 39 Y- 48Cd
Lanthanoids (4f Series):-58Ce – 71Lu
5d Series :- 57La, 72Hf -80Hg
Actinoids (5f Series):- 90Th – 103Lr
6d Series :- 89Ac, 104Rf – 112Cn
 Electronic Configurations of Elements in Groups
• Elements in the same group have similar valence shell electronic
configurations, the same number of electrons in the outer orbitals,
and similar properties.
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Types Of Elements: s-, p-, d-, f- Blocks Elements
By:- Vinod Kumar
 TYPES OF ELEMENTS: s-, p-, d-, f- BLOCKS
• Depending on the type of atomic orbitals that are being filled with electrons the
elements can be classified into four blocks viz., s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
• There are two exceptions to this categorization.
• Helium (1s2) belongs to the s-block it is placed in the p-block along with other
group 18 elements because it has a completely filled valence shell (1s2) and as a
result, exhibits properties characteristic of other noble gases.
• The other exception is hydrogen. It has only one s-electron and hence can be
placed in group 1 (alkali metals). It can also gain an electron to achieve a noble
gas arrangement and hence it can behave similar to a group 17 (halogen family)
elements. Because it is a special case, we shall place hydrogen separately at the
top of the Periodic Table
 The s-Block Elements
• The outermost electronic configuration ns1-2.
• The elements of Group 1 and Group 2 belong to the s-Block Elements
• The Group 1 elements :-Alkali metals ns1 and lose 1 electron and form
unipositive ion ,M+
• The Group 2 elements :- Alkaline earth metals ns2 and lose 2 electrons and forms
dipositive ion, M2+
• They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.
• The metallic character and the reactivity increase as we go down the group.
• Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in nature.
• The compounds of the s-block elements, with the exception of those of lithium and
beryllium are predominantly ionic.
 How to
remember?
Mnemonics for The s-Block Elements
Mnemonics :-A word, sentence or poem
used to help remember a rule, name, etc

Group 1 Elements Group 2 Elements

Atomic Element Symbol Mnemonics Atomic Element Symbol Mnemonics
No. No.

3 Lithium Li ली 4 Beryllium Be बेटा

11 Sodium Na ना 12 Magnesium Mg मागें
19 Potassium K की 20 Calcium Ca कार
37 Rubidium Rb रब 38 Strontium Sr स्कूटर
55 Caesium Cs से 56 Barium Ba बाप
87 Francium Fr फरियाद 88 Radium Ra राजी
The p-Block Elements
• Elements of Group 13 to 18 belongs to the p-block elements
• The outermost electronic configuration ns2np1-6
• At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell
ns2np6 configuration.
• The noble gases exhibit very low chemical reactivity.
• Preceding the noble gas family are two chemically important groups of non-
metals. They are the halogens (Group 17) and the chalcogens (Group 16).
• These two groups of elements have highly negative electron gain enthalpies
and readily add one or two electrons respectively to attain the stable noble gas
configuration.
• The non-metallic character increases as we move The s-and p-block elements together
from left to right across a
called Representative Elements or
period and metallic character increases as we go down the group.
Main Group Elements
MNEMONICS FOR The p-Block Elements
 The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
• These are the elements of Group 3 to 12 in the centre of the Periodic Table.
• These are characterised by the filling of inner d orbitals by electrons and are therefore
referred to as d-Block Elements.
• These elements have the general outer electronic configuration (n-1)d1-10ns0-2 .
• They are all metals.
• They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation states),
paramagnetism and oftenly used as catalysts.
• However, Zn, Cd and Hg with electronic configuration, (n-1) d10ns2 do not show most of
the properties of transition elements.
• In a way, transition metals form a bridge between the chemically active metals of s-block
elements and the less active elements of Groups 13 and 14 and thus take their familiar
name “Transition Elements”.
Transition Elements (d-Block Elements)
3d Series :- 21Sc – 30Zn

4d Series:- 39 Y- 48Cd

5d Series :- 57La, 72Hf -80Hg

6d Series :- 89Ac, 104Rf – 112Cn

The f-Block Elements (Inner-Transition Elements)
• The two rows of elements at the bottom of the Periodic Table are called f-
Block Elements
Inner Transition Elements
• The outer electronic configuration (n-2)f 1-14
(n-1)d ns .
0-1 2
(f-Block Elements)
• The last electron added to each element is filled in( n-2) f- orbital.
Lanthanoids (4f Series):-58Ce – 71Lu
• They are all metals.
Actinoids (5f Series):- 90Th – 103Lr
• Within each series, the properties of the elements are quite similar.
• Actinoid elements are radioactive.
• Many of the actinoid elements have been made only in nanogram
quantities or even less by nuclear reactions and their chemistry is not fully
studied.
• The elements after uranium are called Transuranium Elements.
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Position of Elements in the Periodic Table
• Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids in periodic table

By:- Vinod Kumar

 Position of Elements in the Periodic Table
How can we find out Group number and Period number of an element?
• First write electronic configuration.
• Principal Quantum Number of outer most shell = Number of Period
• The subshell in which last electron enters decides the block (s-, p-, d-, or f-)
• Group Number:-
• For s-block elements, Group Number = = No. of valence electrons
• For p-block elements, Group Number = 10 + No. of valence electrons
• For d-block elements, Group Number = No. of electrons in (n-1) d and ns subshells
• For f-block elements, Group Number :- 3
Continue…
How can we find out Group number and Period number of an element?
For example
Z= 4 Be 1s22s2 Period-2 , Block:-s, Group :-2
Z=9 F 1s22s22p5 Period- 2 ,Block:- p, Group :- 10 + 7 = 17
Z= 11 Na 1s22s22p63s1 Period- 3 , Block:-s , Group :– 1
Z= 14 Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 Period- 3 , Block:- p , Group :– 10 + 4 = 14
Z= 18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6 Period- 3 , Block:- p , Group :– 10 + 8 =18
Z= 20 Ca 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 Period- 4 , Block:- s, Group :– 2
Z=25 Mn 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d5 Period- 4 , Block:- d, Group:- 5+2=7
Z= 29 Cu 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s13d10 Period- 4 , Block:- d, Group:- 10+1=11

Z=21 to 29
Group No.=Sum of digits of atomic number
Problem 3.3
The elements Z = 117 and 120 .In which family / group would you
place these elements and also give the electronic configuration in
each case.
Solution
Z = 117, 7s27p5 , [Rn] 7s25f146d107p5
Period:-7 , Block:- p, Group:-10+7=17 (Halogen Family)
Z = 120, [Og] 8s2 ,
Period:-8 , Block:- s, Group:- 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Q.3.5 In terms of period and group where would you locate the element
with Z =114?
Answer:-
First write electronic configuration 7s27p2
Period :- 7 Block:- p Group:- 10 + 4 = 14
Q.3.6 Write the atomic number of the element present in the third period
and seventeenth
group of the periodic table.
Answer:-
Third Period :- Quantum number of outer most shell =3
17th Group :- p-block element
No. of electrons in the outer most shell=17-10=7
Outer most shell electronic configuration :- 3s23p5
Electronic configuration of the element:-1s22s22p63s23p5
So atomic number of the element:-17
Q.3.30 Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration
(i) ns2np4 for n=3 (ii) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4, and (iii) (n-2) f7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6, in the
periodic table.
Answer:-

(i) ns2np4 for n=3 3s23p4 Period:-3 Block:- p Group:-10+6 = 16

(ii) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4 3d24s2 Period:- 4 Block:- d Group:- 2+2=4

(iii) (n-2) f7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6 4f75d16s2 Period:-6 Block:- f Group:-3

 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• The elements can be divided into Metals and Non-Metals.
• Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left
side of the Periodic Table.
• Metals are usually solids at room temperature [mercury is an exception; gallium
and caesium also have very low melting points (303K and 302K, respectively)].
• Metals usually have high melting and boiling points.
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are malleable (can be flattened into thin sheets by hammering) and
ductile (can be drawn into wires).
Continue…
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
• Non-metals are usually solids or gases at room temperature with low melting
and boiling points (boron and carbon are exceptions).
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Most nonmetallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
• The elements become more metallic as we go down a group;
• The nonmetallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the
Periodic Table.
 Continue…
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals
from non-metals.
• The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and
tellurium) bordering this line and show properties that are
characteristic of both metals and nonmetals.
• These elements are called Semi-metals or Metalloids.
Problem 3.4
Considering the atomic number and position in the periodic table, arrange the
following elements in the increasing order of metallic character : Si, Be, Mg, Na, P.

Solution
Metallic character increases down a group and decreases along a period as we move
from left to right. Hence the order of increasing metallic character is: P < Si < Be < Mg
< Na.
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Atomic Radius and Ionic radius Of
Elements-

By:- Vinod Kumar

 Atomic
Finding the size of an Radius Two reasons
atom is a lot more (1)Size of an atom (1.2 × 10–10 m in radius) is very
complicated than Why? small.
measuring the radius of (2)The electron cloud surrounding the atom does
a ball. not have a sharp boundary,
So the determination of the atomic size cannot be
precise.
Therefore ,an estimate of
the atomic size can be
made by knowing the
distance between the
atoms in the combined
state.
For non-metallic element For metals,
Covalent Radius:- Metallic Radius:-
Half the distance between two atoms when It is taken as half the internuclear distance
they are bound together by a single bond in a separating the metal cores in the metallic
covalent molecule crystal.
For example, the bond distance in the For example, the distance between two
chlorine molecule (Cl2) is 198 pm and half this adjacent copper atoms in solid copper is
distance (99 pm), is taken as the atomic 256 pm; hence the metallic radius of copper
radius of chlorine. Atomic Radius
is refer to a value of 128 pm.
assigned
both covalent or
metallic radius
depending on whether
the element is a non-
metal or a metal.
van der Waal’s Radius:-
• It is half the distance between two
adjacent atoms when they are not
bound together by any bond.
• It is grater than covalent radius.
Variation of Atomic size in a period
• The atomic size generally decreases across a period from left to right
• It is because within the period the outer electrons are in the same valence shell and the
effective nuclear charge increases as the atomic number increases resulting in the
increased attraction of electrons to the nucleus

Atomic radii of noble

gases For noble gases van der
are not considered Wall’s radii is calculated
here. (Non-bonded radii)
Variation of Atomic size in a Group
• Within a group of the periodic table, the atomic radius increases regularly with atomic
number.
• This is because, down the group the principal quantum number (n) increases (i.e. number
of shells increases) and the valence electrons are away from the nucleus.
• And also inner energy levels shield the outer electrons from the pull of the nucleus. So
effective nuclear charges decreases. Consequently the size of the atom increases .
 Ionic Radius
Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has an
influence on its electron cloud
Anion:-
Cation:-
It is formed by gain
It is formed by the
of
removal of an electron
an electron by an
from an atom
atom.
The ionic radii can be In general, the ionic

estimated by measuring the radii of elements

distances between cations and exhibit the same trend

anions in ionic crystals. as the atomic radii.

Size of Cation:-
• A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer electrons
while its nuclear charge remains the same. So effective nuclear charge
increases.
• For example, the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to the
ionic radius of 95 pm for Na+.
Size of Anion:-
• The size of an anion will be larger than that of the parent atom because the
addition of one or more electrons would result in increased repulsion among
the electrons and a decrease in effective nuclear charge.
• For example, the ionic radius of Chloride ion (Cl – ) is 181 pm whereas the
atomic radius of Chlorine is only 99 pm.
Isoelectronic species
• Two or more species with same number of atoms, same number of valence
electrons and same structure, regardless of the nature of elements involved
are called isoelectronic species.
• For example, have the same number of electrons (10).
• Their radii would be different because of their different nuclear charges.
•Problem
Decreasing
3.5 Order of radii :-
Which of the following species will have the largest and the smallest size?
Mg, , Al, .
Solution
Atomic radii decrease across a period. Cations are smaller than their parent atoms.
Among isoelectronic species, the one with the larger positive nuclear charge will have
a smaller radius.
Hence the largest species is Mg; the smallest one is .
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Ionization Enthalpy Of Elements
By:- Vinod Kumar
Ionisation Enthalpy
• It is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom (M) in its
ground state.
• The first ionization enthalpy for an element M is the enthalpy change ( for the reaction

• The ionization enthalpy is expressed in units of .

• The second ionization enthalpy is the energy required to remove the second most loosely
bound electron;
• Energy is always required to remove electrons from an atom and hence ionization enthalpies
are always positive.
< <
• The second ionization enthalpy will be higher than the first ionization enthalpy because it is
more difficult to remove an electron from a positively charged ion than from a neutral atom.
• In the same way the third ionization enthalpy will be higher than the second and so on.
• The term “ionization enthalpy”, if not qualified, is taken as the first ionization enthalpy.
Factors affecting Ionisation Enthalpy
1. Atomic size:- Larger the size , easy to remove electron, low IE
2. Effective nuclear charge:- More the effective nuclear charge, more difficult to remove the
electron , high IE
3. Shielding effect:- More the shielding of nuclear charge by inner electrons, less the effective
nuclear charge, so low IE
4. Stability of Half filled and Full filled orbitals:- removal of electron is more difficult form the
elements having stable half filled and full filled electronic configuration, so high IE
5. Penetrating Effect:- s-electron are more close to nucleus compared to p and d electrons, we
can say that s-electrons are more penetrating towards nucleus so removal of electron is more
difficult from s-electron compared to p and d electrons.
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
• Across a period:-
• effective nuclear charge increases, size decreases .
• Consequently, the outermost electrons are held more and more tightly and the
ionization enthalpy increases across a period.
• As we go down a group:-
• number of shells increases, size increases , shielding of the nuclear charge by
the electrons in the inner levels is also increased , effective nuclear charge
decreases so removal of the outermost electron requires less energy down a
group. Hence IE decreases down a group.
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
• Noble gases which have closed electron shells and very stable electron
configuration have highest IE in a period
• Low ionization enthalpies of Alkali metals can be correlated with their high
reactivity
• Generally, first ionization enthalpy increases as we go across a period and
decreases as we descend in a group
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
Exceptions:-
(1) First ionization enthalpy of boron (Z = 5) is slightly less than that of beryllium (Z
= 4) even though the boron has a greater nuclear charge.
Reason:- Be: 1s2 2s2 B: is2 2s2 2p1
• The s-electron is attracted to the nucleus more than a p-electron.
• The penetration of a 2s-electron to the nucleus is more than that of a 2p-
electron; hence the 2p electron of boron is more shielded from the nucleus by
the inner core of electrons than the 2s electrons of beryllium.
• Therefore, it is easier to remove the 2p-electron from boron compared to the
removal of a 2s- electron from beryllium.
• Thus, boron has a smaller first ionization enthalpy than beryllium.
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
Exceptions:-
(2) First ionization enthalpy of Oxygen (Z= 8) is less than that of Nitrogen (Z = 7) .
Reason:-

• N has stable half filled 2p orbitals while in O , 2 electrons are present in one of
the 2p orbitals resulting in an increased electron-electron repulsion.
• Consequently, it is easier to remove the fourth 2p-electron from oxygen than
it is, to remove one of the three 2p-electrons from nitrogen
Problem 3.6
• The first ionization enthalpy (DiH ) values of the third period elements, Na, Mg

and Si are respectively 496, 737 and 786 kJ mol–1. Predict whether the first DiH
value for Al will be more close to 575 or 760 kJ mol–1 ? Justify your answer.
Solution
Element Na Mg Al Si
IE (kJ/mol) 496 737 ? 786
Outer most electronic 3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2
Configuration
• It will be more close to 575 kJ mol–1. The value for Al should be lower than that
of Mg because of effective shielding of 3p electrons from the nucleus by 3s-
electrons.
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Properties Of Elements-
• Electron Gain Enthalpy
• Electronegativity
By:- Vinod Kumar
Electron Gain Enthalpy
• When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a negative
ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as the Electron Gain
Enthalpy (DegH).

• Depending on the element, the process of adding an electron to the atom can be either
endothermic or exothermic
• For many elements energy is released when an electron is added to the atom and the
electron gain enthalpy is negative.
• For example, group 17 elements (the halogens) have very high negative electron
gain enthalpies because they can attain stable noble gas electronic configurations
by picking up an electron.
• On the other hand, noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies because
the electron has to enter the next higher principal quantum level leading to a very
unstable electronic configuration.
Electron Gain Enthalpy
• Electron gain enthalpies have large negative values toward the upper
right of the periodic table preceding the noble gases.
Continue…

Variation In Electron Gain Enthalpy

• The variation in electron gain enthalpies of elements is less systematic than for ionization
enthalpies.
Across a period:-
• As a general rule, electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative with increase in the
atomic number across a period.
• Reason:-The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right across a period and
consequently it will be easier to add an electron to a smaller atom since the added
electron on an average would be closer to the positively charged nucleus.
Down a group:-
• Generally, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative as we go down a group
• Reason:-because the size of the atom increases and the added electron would be away
from the nucleus.
Variation In Electron Gain Enthalpy
Exception:-
• Electron gain enthalpy of O or F is less negative than that of the succeeding
element (S or Cl).

• This is because size of O or F is smaller (compact). When an electron is

added to O or F, the added electron goes to the smaller n = 2 quantum
level and suffers significant repulsion from the other electrons present in
this level.
• For the n = 3 quantum level (S or Cl), the added electron occupies a larger
region of space and the electron-electron repulsion is much less.
Problem 3.7
• Which of the following will have the most negative electron gain enthalpy and which the
least negative? P, S, Cl, F. Explain your answer.
Solution
• Electron gain enthalpy generally becomes more negative across a period as we move
from left to right.
• Within a group, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down a group.
• However, adding an electron to the 2p-orbital leads to greater repulsion than adding an
electron to the larger 3p-orbital.
• Hence the element with most negative electron gain enthalpy is chlorine;
• the one with the least negative electron gain enthalpy is phosphorus.
Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared electrons to
itself is called electronegativity.
• Unlike ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy, it is not a measureable
quantity.
• A number of numerical scales of electronegativity of elements viz., Pauling scale,
Mulliken-Jaffe scale, Allred-Rochow scale have been developed.
• The one which is the most widely used is the Pauling scale.
• Fluorine have the greatest ability to attract shared electrons to itself . So it is
considered as the most electronegative element in the periodic table. And it is
assigned a value of 4.0 of electronegativity
Variation of Electronegativity
Across a period:-
• Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right in the
periodic table.
• Reason:-Atomic radii decrease across each period from left to right.
• The attraction between the outer (or valence) electrons and the nucleus
increases as the atomic radius decreases in a period. So the electronegativity
also increases.
Down a group:-
• Electronegativity generally decreases down a group in the periodic table.
• Reason:- Atomic radii increase down a group so attraction between
outer electrons and the nucleus decrease as the size increase down a
group so electronegativity also decreases
Relationship between electronegativity and Metallic & non-metallic
properties
• Non-metallic elements have strong tendency to gain electrons.
• Therefore, electronegativity is directly related to the non-metallic properties of
elements.
• Or we can say that the electronegativity is inversely related to the metallic
properties of elements.
• Thus, the increase in electronegativities across a period is accompanied by an
increase in non-metallic properties (or decrease in metallic properties) of
elements.
• Similarly, the decrease in electronegativity down a group is accompanied by a
decrease in non-metallic properties (or increase in metallic properties) of
The periodic trends of elements in the
periodic table
 Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
• Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

By:- Vinod Kumar

 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
Valency :
• Combining capacity of an element is called its valency.
• Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence
electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.
• For representative elements:-
• Valency= Number of valence electrons OR
• Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons
Oxidation state
• Oxidation state of an element in a particular compound can be defined as the
charge acquired by its atom on the basis of electronegative consideration from
other atoms in the molecule.
• Consider the compounds: OF2 and Na2O.
• The order of electronegativity of the three elements involved in these compounds
is F > O > Na.
• Each fluorine atom (2s22p5) shares one electron with oxygen in the OF2 molecule.
Being highest electronegative element, fluorine is given oxidation state –1.
• Oxygen (2s22p4) shares two electrons, one from each fluorine atom and thereby
exhibits oxidation state +2.
• In Na2O, oxygen being more electronegative accepts two electrons, one from each
of the two sodium atoms and, thus, shows oxidation state –2. On the other hand
sodium (3s1) loses one electron to oxygen and is given oxidation state +1.
Problem 3.8
Using the Periodic Table, predict the formulas of compounds which might be
formed by the following pairs of elements;
(a) silicon and bromine (b) aluminium and sulphur.
Solution
(a) Silicon group 14 element valence of 4;
Problem 3.9
bromine group 17 halogen family valence of 1.
Are the oxidation state and covalency of
Hence the formula of the compound formed would beAlSiBr
in 4same ?
(b) Aluminium group 13 element valence of 3;
Solution
sulphur group 16 element valence ofNo.
2. The oxidation state of Al is +3 and
Hence, the formula of the compound formed would be Al2covalency
the S3 is 6.
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• Diagonal relationship
• Lithium and beryllium, the first elements of Group 1 and Group 2 respectively exhibit some properties
which are different from those of the other members of the respective group.
• In these anomalous properties they resemble the second element of the following group.
• Thus, lithium shows similarities to magnesium and beryllium to aluminium in many of their properties.
• This type of diagonal similarity is commonly referred to as diagonal relationship in the periodic table.
• The diagonal relationship is due to the similarity in ionic sizes and /or charge/radius ratio of the elements.
For example, lithium unlike other alkali
metals, and beryllium unlike other
alkaline earth metals, form compounds
with predominantly covalent character;
the other members of these groups
predominantly form ionic compounds
Continue…
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• The first element of each of the groups 13-17 (boron to fluorine) also differs in
many respects from the other members of their respective group.
Reasons for Small size, large charge/ radius
this ratio ,high electronegativity of the
anomalous
behaviour? elements and absence of d-
orbitals.

• The first member of group has only four valence orbitals (2s and 2p) available for
bonding, whereas the second member of the groups have nine valence orbitals
(3s, 3p, 3d).
• Therefore, the maximum covalency of the first member of each group is 4 (e.g., )
whereas the other members can expand their valence e.g., aluminium
 Continue…
Anomalous Properties of Second Period
Elements

• Furthermore, the first member of p-block elements displays greater ability to

form pp – pp multiple bonds to itself (e.g., C = C, C º C, N = N, N º N) and
to other second period elements (e.g., C = O, C = N, C º N, N = O)
compared to subsequent members of the same group.
Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
• The ionization enthalpy of the extreme left element in a period is the least and
the electron gain enthalpy of the element on the extreme right is the highest
negative (Except noble gases).
• This results into high chemical reactivity at the two extremes and the lowest in
the centre.
• Thus, the maximum chemical reactivity at the extreme left (among alkali
Reactivity
metals) of alkaliby
is exhibited metals increases
the loss of an electron leading to the formation of a
down and
cation the group
at the because
extreme of decrease
right (amonginhalogens) shown by the gain of an
ionisation
electron forming enthalpy
an anion.
Reactivity of halogens decreases down the group
because electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative
and electronegativity also decreases down the group
Continue…

Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

• The metallic character of an element, which is highest at the extremely left
decreases and the non-metallic character increases while moving from left to right
across the period.
• The chemical reactivity of an element can be best shown by its reactions with
oxygen and halogens.
• Elements on two extremes of a period easily combine with oxygen to form oxides.
• The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (e.g.,
Na2O), whereas that formed by the element on extreme right is the most acidic (e.g.,

Cl2O7).

• Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric (e.g., Al2O3, As2O3) or neutral (e.g.,

CO, NO, N2O).

• Amphoteric oxides behave as acidic with bases and as basic with acids, whereas
Problem 3.10
• Show by a chemical reaction with water that Na2O is a basic oxide and Cl2O7 is
an acidic oxide.
Solution
• Na2O with water forms a strong base whereas Cl2O7 forms strong acid.
Na2O + H2O ® 2NaOH

Cl2O7 + H2O ® 2HClO4

Their basic or acidic nature can be qualitatively tested with litmus paper.