DIREDAWA COLLEGE

OF TEACHERS’
EDUCATION
ACTION RESEARCH FOR PREPRIMARY EDUC
PPED 2261/A,R,P,IN P EDU2272/2/
CR.2

2016

YOSEF DENBU
 The Concept of a Research
• is “careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge,
• conducted to find facts or principles”.
• human effort to extend his understanding about the world in
which he/she lives.
• It is a quest for knowledge.
• To find what is really happening, the costs and benefits of a
certain program.
 Con…
• To make judgments and make best decisions about the
program and able to justify these decisions to anyone seeking
information.
• Different writers defined
• According to Coul (1984) `` Research is the application of
scientific method in the study of problems.
• `` For Kerlinger (1973) `` Research is systematically controlled
scientific method of testing hypothesis which focuses on the
relationship of phenomena.``
 Con…
• Jacobs and Razayieh (1990) the application of scientific approach to
the study of problems for determining useful and reliable information
and it is designed to find solution to meaning full researchable
questions through the application of scientific procedures.
Generally research follows scientific approach in order to solve the
problems in systematic and controlled manner.
• Research is generally considered as a systematic inquiry involving a
series of interdependent and systematic steps.
• Educational Research is the systematic application of scientific method
for solving for solving educational problem.
• Research is simply a process of arriving at dependable solutions
to problems through the planned and systematic collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data.
• Research is a more systematic activity that is directed toward
discovery and development of an organized body of
knowledge.
• It does not include the routine activities of applying what is
already known but is reserved for activities designed to
discover facts and relationships that will make the educational
process more effective.
• Research is oriented towards the discovery of the relationships
that exist among the phenomena of the world in which we live.
 Sources of Acquiring Knowledge
Knowledge: is a body of truth of information, facts,
principles & laws gained by humankind about phenomena.
Faith/Belife/
common sense,
Logic/reason/
tradition
experience
the scientific method.
 Scientific Approach

When we get knowledge through a step – by – step process of collecting

data, analyzing data and reach to conclusion we follow scientific
procedures.
Scientific approach enables us to establish laws to make predictions and to
get solutions to problems.
1. Conducting Observation: sense organs to collect data from the
environment
2. Formulating Assumption: to guess the tentative solution for the problem
3. Conducting Experiment : an experiment to check if the assumptions are
true
4. Forming Conclusions-based on the results of the experiment tried again
and again we can make generalization.
 Educational research

Schools are complex social environment with different groups of people coming
from different background experiences and with varieties of needs and interests.
In addition to this complex nature, schools are also parts of dynamic, ever
changing environment of the world that demand updating, and improving of the
school working system in general and the classroom instruction in particular.
Complexities and challenges of classroom situations are solved through action
research endeavours.
Con…
 Educational research provides a vast landscape of knowledge on
topics related to teaching and learning, curriculum and assessment,
students’ cognitive and affective needs, cultural and socio-economic
factors of schools, and many other factors considered viable to
improving schools.
 Major Characteristics of Educational Research:

1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

2. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future
occurrences.
3. Research is based upon observable experience empirical
evidence`
4. Research demands accurate observation and description.
5. Research involves gathering new data from primary or
firsthand sources or using existing data for mew purpose.
6. Research requires expertise.
7. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every
possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data
collected, and the conclusions reached.
8. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved
problems.
9. Researcher is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
10. Research is carefully recorded and reported..
11. Research sometimes requires courage.
 To summarize, a good Educational Research:

• It is highly purposeful.
• It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of
investigation.
• It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to
arrive at statistical inferences.
• It discovers new facts in new perspective.
• Is directed towards the solution of educational problems.
 Con…
• Involves gathering of new data from primary of secondary
sources using existing data for a new purpose.
• Is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence.
It demands accurate observation and description.
• Generally employs carefully designed procedures and
rigorous analysis
• It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and
experience for its interpretation and conclusions.
• Emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles
or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and
control of educational variables
 Classification of Research in Education

1.Classification by Methods
A. Historical Research
Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective
location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts
and draw conclusions about past events.
The common methodological characteristics include
(i) identifying a research topic that addresses past events,
(ii) review of primary and secondary data,
 Con…
• (iii) systematic collection and objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences with the help of techniques of
criticism for historical searches and evaluation of the
information and
• (iv) synthesis and explanation of findings in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends of these
events that may help to explain present events and anticipate
future events.
 The Purpose of Historical
Research
Conducting historical research in education can serve several purposes as
follows:
1. It enables educationists to find out solutions to contemporary problems
which have their roots in the past. i.e. it serves the purpose of bringing
about reforms in education.
2. It throws light on present trends and can help in predicting future
trends. If we understand how an educationist or a group of educationists
acted in the past, we can predict how they will act in future.
3. It emphasizes and analyzes the relative importance and the effect of the
various interactions in the prevailing cultures.
4. It enables us to understand how and why educational theories and
practices developed.
 B.Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is to obtain information concerning the

present status of things and draw conclusions from the facts
discovered. It involves measurement, classification, analysis and
interpretation of data. Information in descriptive research can
be collected through interviews and questionnaires. Content
analysis and case study are examples of descriptive research.
 c. Experimental Research
• The experimental method in educational research is the
application and adaptation of the classical method of
experimentation. It is a scientifically sophisticated
method.
• Experimental research is the description and analysis of
what will be, or what will occur, under carefully
controlled conditions. Experimenters manipulate
certain stimuli, treatments, or environmental conditions
and observe how the condition or behavior of the
subject is affected or changed.
 Characteristics of Experimental
Method
There are four essential characteristics of experimental
research:
1. Control:-Variables that are not of direct interest to the
researcher, called extraneous variables, need to be controlled.
2. Manipulation: Manipulation refers to a deliberate operation
of the conditions by the researcher. In this process, a pre-
determined set of conditions, called independent variable or
experimental variable. It is also called treatment variable.
Such variables are imposed on the subjects of experiment.
3. Observation:-Our entire view of the natural world depends
on the accurate recording of data and the organization of
these data into general concepts.
4. Replication:-Replication is a matter of conducting a number
of sub-experiments, instead of one experiment only, within
the framework of the same experimental design.
 1.3.2. Classification by Types of Data

1. Qualitative:-refers to research that involves to the

meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics and
descriptions of finding. It is a type of research, which
describes phenomena in words instead of numbers and
measures.
2. Quantitative
This refers to research that involves measuring traits,
characteristics, attributes of things and describing the
attributes in numbers instead of words.
 1.3.3. Classification by Function
1.Pure or Basic (Fundamental) Research
• The main aim of basic research is the discovery of knowledge
for its own sake. It is targeted to discover laws that govern
relationships between events, and formulation of theories. It
has little concern for the application of findings. For example,
B.F. skinner found the theory that incentive increases
recurrence of the rewarded response. In physical science,
Isaac Newton discovered laws of motion.
 2. Applied or Field Research

Applied research tries to solve specific policy problems or help

practitioners accomplish task.
Applied research is frequently descriptive research, and its main
strength is its immediate practical use.
People employed by business, government agencies, social service
agencies, and health organizations, and educational institutions
conduct applied research.
The consumers of applied research findings are practitioners such as
teachers, counselors, and caseworkers, or decision-makers such as
managers, committees, and officials.
The results of applied research is less likely to enter the public
domain in publications.
 3. Action Research

• Action research is applied research that treats knowledge as a

form of power and abolishes the line between research and
social action.
• Action researchers assume that knowledge develops from
experience.
• Action research is participative type involving all concerned
experts, managers, practitioners and beneficiaries in
implementing some initiative.
• The data obtained, results of analysis, and implications are all
used as feedback within that system.
 unit two.
What is Action Research ?

2.1 The Meaning of Action Research

Different writers in the field defined the term `` action research`` indifferent ways.
Let us see some of the definitions given by different authors at different times.
Action research is
• Process through which practitioners study their own practice to solve their
personal practical problems (Corey, 1953).
• pre–testing ideas in practice as means of increasing knowledge about improving
curriculum, teaching and learning (Kemmis& Taggart, 1982).
• systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers, principals, school
counselors, or other stake holders in the teaching learning environment to
gather information how their particular schools operate, and how well their
student learn (Mills, 2003).
 2.2. Characteristics of Action Research
The following features characterize action research. Please try to compare with
your attempt.
• It done by the practitioner;
• It is problem - solving for immediate practices;
• It has eclectic orientation (i.e., not following anyone particular system or set of
ideas, but using parts of many different ones)
• It is action - oriented, practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in the
working world. The subjects are the classroom students, the staff or others with
whom teachers are primarily involved.
• It is empirical in the sense that it relies. on actual observations and behavioral data,
and doesn't fall back on subjective committee studies or opinions or people based
on their past experience
• It is flexible and adaptive
• It is systematic but lacks scientific rigor because its internal and external validity is
weak.
• It is, only limited training and research methods is needed because rigorous design
and scientific analysis are not usually necessary;
• The objective of action research is situational and it has little control over
independent variable;
• Its findings are useful for practical dimensions of the situation, but do not directly
contribute to the genera! Body of knowledge.
 Con…
Action research can be called a “cycle of action” because it normally
follow the same process such as identify core problem, develop research
plan, collect data, analyze data, embed the findings into planning,
implement and monitor and evaluate the actions then education researchers
repeat the process. Different name given to A.R, teacher research,
classroom research, practitioner research and teacher as researcher.
The reasons for naming action research differently could be due to:
a) the settings and processes of action research are dynamic;
b) the philosophy, perspectives, and experiences of the researchers;
c) the contexts in which action research is sought may vary;
d) the theory motivating the research; and
e) Objective factors such as the conditions under which the research is being
conducted and the question(s) being investigated.
 CON…
Action research is a distinct kind of research that is different from other traditional
educational research.
It is constructivist, situational, practical, systematic, and cyclical.
Constructivist
Action researchers are perceived as generators of knowledge rather than receivers and enactors of
knowledge produced by outside experts.
From this perspective, practitioners are professionals who are capable of making informed decisions
based on their own inquiries and able to assume responsibility for their own research-based actions
Situational
Action researchers aim to understand the unique context of their studies and the
participants involved. on – the spot procedure)- This refers to the methods concern of
diagnosing a problem encountered in specific – on the – spot situation and attempting
 CON…

Collaborative. Teams of researchers and practitioners need to work together with

their diverse experience that is put to gather to bring a refined effect.
Practical
Action researchers choose the questions that they plan to investigate based on their
own concerns and professional areas of interests. The results of their studies are
immediately relevant to the improvement of their practice
Systematic
Action research is intentional, thoughtfully planned, systematic, and methodical. The
research process has to be systematic in order to produce trustworthy and
meaningful results (Burns, 2007; Burton, Brundelt, & Jones, 2008; McNiff &
Whitehead, 2010; Stringer, 2007).
Cyclical
.Similar steps to recur in similar sequences each cycle demands a critical reflection of
understanding (knowledge) which in turn helps the researcher plan for the next
steps. Action research starts with a research question and ends with the application
of the knowledge gained that leads to new questions and a new cycle of research
Participatory. This refers to all the people affected by the problem are made to involve in the
research. In the educational research the participants are teachers, pupils, administrators, parents
and the whole community.
Self evaluative. (Flexible and adaptable) all what are carried out in the action research process are
continuously and actively evaluated
Qualitative nature. This is the quality that makes action research more responsive and participatory.
Relaxed view scientific approach.
action research is more of interpersonal than methodological
the research method does not follow scientific method strictly
The researchers could possibly use agreed upon procedures they think effective because of this it
empowers the participants to use mutually acceptable professional frame works rather than
those imposed from the external bodies
action research is criticized for the
following points
• It has got situational and specific objectives rather than general ones.
• It uses restricted samples rather than representatives
• It has little or no control over independent variables
• It comes out with findings limited to a particular situation only.
2.3. Importance of Action
Research
• Different scholars view in the importance of action
research in different ways. In order to be clear with
the importance of action research let us see the
rational given by Mc Niff (2001). According to her, the
social basis of action research is involvement, where
as its educational basis is improvement. The
improvement could be personal, institutional and
professional.
• In bringing improvement through action research, the
practitioner, those who affected by the problem and
those research collaborators are let in the method to
actively involve in the research. Based on these and
other related rationales, McNifp (2001) pointed out
the three reasons why should teachers conduct action
research. These are: political, personal and
Professional importance.
I. Political Reason- Teacher are highly responsible and authorized in implementing
effective and efficient the classroom management, active learning approach, problem
solving approach and other teaching learning activities, in education sector. In order to
solve immediate problems and improve their practice, the action research is the main
means. This indicated that teachers should conduct action research, in order to implement
their responsibilities in their professional areas i.e. political importance of action research.
II. Personal Reason- An action researcher, having made a discovery, should not see the
world a gain as before. That is he/she has to see things differently. This shows how action
research serves to enrich the practitioners’ imagination and even personal life.
III.Professional Reason-Action research helps teachers to examine, evaluate and improve
their practice and establish their sound justification for what they are doing.It encourages
the researchers to become critical in their thinking to develop theory and rationales to
give reasoned justification to their professional practice and knowledge. It helps teachers
to systematically analyze what is happing in the actual classroom.
 In sch ools to en ha nce te ach in g profe ssion in ge nera l a nd clas sroom ins tru ction in pa rticu lar. Th ese a re:

• Improving and/or changing teaching method

• Adopting an integrated learning and teaching approach
• Improving one’s method of continuous assessment
• Encouraging more positive attitudes and values to work
• Personal in service development or teachers improving teaching skills,
developing new methods, increasing power of analysis or high listening self –
awareness.
• The gradual introduction or manageable techniques in behavioral modification.
• Increasing the efficiency of some administrative aspects etc
In general, the importance of action research in teaching can be discussed as
follows.
• The fundamental aim of action research is to improve practice rather than to
produce knowledge.
• Action research enables practioners to identify the specific problems, formulate
possible solutions, apply those solutions, evaluate the results and keep records.
• It helps to narrow the gap between the theory and practice of education. This
means it encourages teachers developing their own personal theories of teaching
• Action research as applied to school and classroom situation is an approach to
improve teaching and learning through change by encouraging teacherstobe
aware of their practice, to be critical of that practice, and to be prepared to
change it.
2.4. Quality of Researcher to Conduct Action Research

• Action research demands five major qualities of a researcher:

commitment, collaboration, concern, consideration, and change.
I. COMMITMENT:-Action research takes time. The participants need
time to get to know and trust each other and to observe practice,
consider changes, try new approaches, and document, reflect, and
interpret the results.
II. COLLABORATION:-In action research, the power relations among
participants are equal; each person contributes, and each person has a
stake. Collaboration is not the same as compromise, but involves a
cyclical process of sharing, of giving, and of taking.
 CON…
III. CONCERN;-The interpretive nature of action research (for example, relying on personal
dialogue and a close working relationship) means that the participants will develop a
support group of 'critical friends'.
• IV. CONSIDERATION:-Reflective practice is the mindful review of one's actions specifically,
ones professional actions. Reflection requires concentration and careful consideration as
one seeks patterns and relationships that will generate meaning within the investigation.
• V. Change:-Excellent! For humans, growing and changing are part of the development of
cycle of life. Change is ongoing and at times, difficult, but it is an important element in
remaining effective as a teacher. Change is possible if one has .the right nurturing and
support, and the results are worthwhile
• VI. Support from school Directors:-I am sure the efforts made by the researcher alone
could not smooth the way. Thus, teachers require support of various kinds. Let see some
of the supports that are expected from the school principal. Assume you are conducting
an action research in your school.
2.5. Steps in Action Research
• Planning- All the members of the research team question `` what are
the realities of their particular practices and begin to research for ``
what ought to be``.
• Acting- The researchers implement the pan they have developed,
addressing all or particular set of problems.
• Observing- Simultaneous with action and it is the collection of data. It
is important for subsequent reflection and action.
• Reflection- The researchers reflect up on what is happening with their
project developing revised action plans based up on what hey are
learning from the process or planning, acting and observing.
USID-AED PROJECT II (2008)
described the six steps in
conducting action research.
These are:
• Selecting Research Topic/problem
• Reconnaissance,
• Developing action strategies,
• Implementing,
• Observation and
• Reflection.
I. Problem Identification

• In action research, problem identification demands consideration of

many issues and critical thinking.
• Choosing a Suitable Topic
• The first step in action research process is to find and formulate a
feasible starting point or a general idea.
It is wise to ask the following questions in evaluating the research problem to
know how much feasible a given topic is.

1. Is this type of problem can be effectively solved through the

process of research?

2. Can relevant data be gathered to test the theory or find the

answer to the question under consideration?

• 2. In the problem significant? Is an important principle involved? Would the solution
make any difference as far as educational theory or practice is concerned? If not, there
are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be investigated.
• 3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available?
• 4. Is research on the problem feasible?
• In relation to the above point, although the problem is a good one the researcher
should ask, is the problem good for me? That is:
• a. Am I competent (by profession and skill) to plan and carry out a study of this type?
• b. Are pertinent data accessible? Are valid and reliable data gathering devices and
procedures available?
• c. Will I have the necessary financial resources to carryon this study?
• d. Will I have enough time to complete the project?
• e. Will I have the courage and determination to pursue the study in spite of the
difficulties and social hazards (e.g. cooperation) that may be involved?
Problems /Issues/ in Identifying an Action
Research Problem

• The myriad of numerous questions, issues, concerns, and problems

dealing with children, parents, curriculum and resources are as in the
following:
• Will my students perform better if I use multiple modalities of
instruction?
• Would involving parents in the homework cycle increase the
likelihood that students complete their homework?
• Does homework completion and success translate into better test
scores?
Before writing action research topic(problem), you
must consider the following questions

• What do you want to change? Or, what do I want-to try?

• What STRATEGY will I use to gather information before and during the
study?
• How will I change my practice? (Intervention)
• How will I know it has changed? (Data gathering)
• What kind of ANALYSIS will I do to find out if things have changed?
• Did anything change as a result of my intervention?
• How do I know
 Points for Evaluating Research
Problem
Significance (relevance):- The problem should be one whose solution will make a
difference to educational practice.
Feasibility. This refers to the researcher’s personal aspects that the research
problem demands. In most cases four points are required to be fulfilled here
• The problem should interest the researcher. The solution should enable him/her to improve
his/her performance as practitioner.
• the problem should be on the area of the researcher so that he/she could have enough
knowledge and experience
• The problem must be one that the researcher can find the relevant data.
• It must be one that should be completed in the allotted time.
 Con…
Researchability An action problem has to be solved in a scientific way. This is a
quality where by problems are expected to show issues or variables of the
research. A research problem has to show relationship between variables without
which research could not with finding and the variables included must be
identified.
Generativeness. A given study is not expected to with complete solutions for all
questions raised. A problem identified for a research should pose questions for
further investigations. This is typically a characteristic of classroom researches.
 Possible Sources of Research
Problems
• Experience- This is the most appropriate and fruitful source for practitioners. Here
the problems are taken from the researcher’s day – to -day experience or his/her
educational practice. Continuous evaluation of teacher’s practice against pupil’s
behavioral change is the ultimate source of the problem. Problems identified in
such a way are life to the researcher as they are immediate to the situation.
Deduction from theory (knowledge)
Theories involve general principles on the basis of which generalizations that work
in the area of investigations could be drawn. The very bases of action research are
educational theories.
• The researcher here is desired to test whether those theories work and put in to
effect in a particular immediate and day – today activity. To this end the
researchers can formulate research problems from educational theories. But
action researchers especially beginners are not advised to deduce problems from
theories.
 literature:

At any time the researcher ends up his/her investigation in a certain logical step
that enables readers suggest what the next step would be. Dissatisfaction with
research findings lasts the researchers to plan another so as to fill the gap in the
problem area. Thus it is possible to design a research problem from one’s reading
of research works (literatures)
The research problems driven from literature are recommended to investigation
for over all generalization. But problems for action research are prompt in a sense
that they are set for searching a solution for an immediate problem. Thus,
literature is not convent source of action research problem.
 II. Reconnaissance /scouting
/investigation/
• Here the researchers are expected to describe, explain and analyze the nature,
characteristics and causes of the problem. The researchers must formulate the
procedures of the research process and the possible solutions that they think
are best to alleviate the problem. Say for example if the research problem is ``
How can improve classroom participation of students? ``
Con…

• The researcher should raise and answer the following questions:

• What is the definition of classroom participation?
• What is the less participation of students?
• Which students are participating less?
• To what extent should the students participate?
• What are the possible causes for less participation?
• When did they actively participate? Why?
• How is possible to improve their participation? etc
• Generally, the researcher gathers information about the nature of the problem.
This helps the researcher:
• To have more and more knowledge on his/her research problem
• To explain enrich, analyze and if possible to change his/her idea of research
problem.
 III. Developing Action Strategies
As we know action research findings enable teachers to improve
educational quality in general and classroom instruction in
particular.
To this end, action strategies that the researcher develops while
conducting action research should focus on mainly in bringing
improvement in teaching learning practice and solving the
immediate problems in instruction.
 Con….
• While developing action strategies, the researcher should answer the following
two basic questions.
• Can I certain whether the strategy brought (result) improvement in
practice?
• Can developed action strategy give answers to the following
question?
• How can I develop action strategy that solves the problem?
• How can I choose the best strategy from others?
• How can I follow and record the resulted improvement thorough
strategies etc
• Generality, the researcher should consider usefulness, practicability and
acceptability of action strategies that he/she develops.
IV. Implementing
• We have seen that, in order to bring the intended improvement, the researcher
should develop appropriate strategies. The effectiveness of the developed
action strategies can be evaluated after those strategies are put in to practice
why the given action strategy can flailed. These are:
• Unable to understand how strategies can be implemented
• Lack of knowledge about the strategy itself
• Un able to analyze the situation related to the problem
• Lack of information about the problem
• Lack of knowledge about the problem itself.
 V. Observation.
• During this step the researcher ascertains (checks) whether the intended
(expected) improvements are resulted or not by gathering and analyzing the
appropriate data related to the research topic. During action research, the
researcher can gather information at two stages. That are:-
• During reconnaissance stage- when the researcher explains, describes and
analyses the nature of the problem and related issues.
• After implementation – This is to evaluate the research findings and to reflect
the work itself.
• This tells us that the researcher should have the appropriate knowledge and skill
in gathering analyzing and interpreting the information.
 VI. Reflection
• . Reflection is the last stage in the first cycle of the action research. The researcher identifies the
intended (expected) outcomes of the research. During reflection the researcher shares the research
findings to the other teachers (individuals). Reflection also helps the researchers to plan another plan
in the future. Reflection requires intense discussion with other teachers. The discussion during
reflection results the following advantages.
• It makes the acquired knowledge long last,
• It helps to enrich the research findings through comments of others,
• It develops the sense of responsibility on the teachers,
• It serves as means of professional development,
• It develops self confidence on the part of teachers;
• It serves as stepping point for future plans, etc.
• In reflecting the research findings the researcher should consider the three issues. These are:
• The theme of the reflection;
• To whom he/she is going to reflect and
•
 2.6. Sample and Sampling Techniques

• Before going deep in a researching process, one has to specify the problem and the area the problem

prevails (the population?) What is a population in research work?

• Population is a group of people, objects or events that have common characteristics with regard to what

is going to be researched.

• Example can be all colleges of teacher education in Hawassa town, all female students of Hawassa Tabor

Senior Secondary School or all mathematics teachers of primary schools in Hawassa town.Now, assume

that you want to conduct research on classroom management problems in mathematics classes of

primary schools. Can you contact all mathematics teachers mentioned above to collect data for your

study? This seems practically impossible and therefore you have to try to go a sample population.
 Con…

Usually three steps are involved in the process of selecting samples for a study. They are

A. Determining the population. to clearly define or know the population, technically

called the universe, to be studied or where the study is conducted. The population

of interest for the researcher could be village, schools, students, teachers,

classrooms, families, clubs, individuals, chairs, buildings, etc.

B. Determining the sample frame. The complete list of the members is known as

sampling frame from which the sample is to be drawn.

C. Selecting a representative sample.

 What is sample population?
Sample population is that group of individuals that is selected from those
members of population.
What do you think is the difference and similarity between population and its
sample?
Their difference is that sample is smaller in size than population.
• If the sample is representative of the larger population then the sample and the
population are similar in their characteristics because the sample is part of the
population.
• What size of sample is preferred in order to make the out come of research
more-dependable?
• It is not simple to decide the size of sample blindly; there are conditions to be
considered or factors that determine the sample size
 Factors that determine the sample size

They are:
Availability of informants:- Some cases are easy to locate but others are not.
Financial constraints:-The cost of conducting study limits the number of subject to
be contacted
Importance of result:- Willingness to tolerate large margin of error for example in an
exploratory research
Accuracy needed-the higher the sample size the higher the will be the confidence
The nature of population;-Homogeneous populations need small sized sample
compared to heterogeneous population.
Sampling Techniques
• Considering the above determinant factors, researchers make decisions on the
method of sampling and size of sample.
 Con…
Decision, on the method takes one of the two types:
A. probability sampling and
B. non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling
A type of sampling where every member of population has equal chance to be included in the sample.
Has many methods of selection of individuals for the sample in probability sampling. These are:
A) Simple Random sampling:-
Individuals are drawn from the defined population randomly.
The chance of selection is independent of selection of other member.
• Suppose there is an assignment given to a group of 10 students & finally to be presented by two student at the end of a
week.
If You choose two student from member to present it is not random sampling but
 write the names of the 10 student roll them and take a draw out for two students turn by turn this is what is called random
sampling; there is no any external bias.
Steps to be followed in suing simple random sampling
 have all the names of population members written on tickets
 determine the size of sample
 Roll that tickets on which names are written, mix the tickets.
 2) Systematic Sampling

This is a technique of sampling which is a little bit systematic. The following steps are followed to
apply the technique of systematic sampling.
1.Get the complete list of population members, i.e., their names or type of identification
ordered in some way, say in alphabetical order. Represent this with N (size of the population).
2.Determine the number of members to be included in the sample.
This is represented by n (size of the sample).
3.Determine the sampling fraction by dividing N by n, that is, divide the total population to the
required sample size. Let us represent this fraction by k. Then Hence every kth individual in
the name list will be selected.

Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining
individuals of the sample are selected at fixed intervals.
Exercise
Show the steps you followed, to samples selected for the following given data.
• Given- Number of population 24 Needed sample size – 8
 3. Stratified Sampling
Stratified Sampling­:- is a technique of sampling applied when the nature of population (when there are different
subordinations in the population.
For example: If the problem being studied is regarding the academic difference (fast learner average & slow learner) of
students of a given school the researcher may consider this difference and applies the technique of stratified sampling. He
may proportionally select individuals for the three different categories of fast learners, show learners, & average students.
Steps to be followed
1. Count members from each stratum (category)
Fast learners – 10 Average -230 Slow learners 60 N = 300
2. Determine the proportion n/N. Let the sample size n is 60. The
Proportion will be 60/300== 1/5==0.2
3. Multiply the quantity of each stratum by the proportion
The resulting contribution of each .stratum to the sample will be:
Fast learners = 2 Average learners = 46 Slow learners = 12

Now, the question is which 2 students out of 10, which 46 students out, of
230, and which 12 students out of 60 are going to the included in the
sample? To determine this researcher is expected to again apply the simple
random' or the systematic random sampling" technique to each stratum.
 4. Cluster sampling:
This technique is applied when it is suitable to group population in to different
clusters due to their natural geographic occurrence or the greater number of the
members. For example, it is possible to cluster students by grade levels FROM 1 to
8. A person who wants to study the study /working habit of students can:
First define cluster in terms of grade levels 1st, 2nd, 3rd,... ,8th
Then randomly select one cluster for example 5th grade
If members in the selected cluster are not manageable in size the researcher may
further apply the simpler and or systematic sampling technique.
 B. The Non Probability Sampling

Random sampling may not be appropriate due to

1) Lack of access to the entire population.
2)Low importance of research generalizability.
3)Few cases or groups.

There for non probability sampling technique is less strict and makes no 'claim for
representativeness. It is up to the researcher to decide on the sample units to be
chosen for the study. There are four types of non-probability sampling procedures.

The procedures do not use rules of probability theory and do not indicate
representatives, and are used for exploration and qualitative studies. Each type of
1) Accidental Sampling

When this sampling method is used, all units for the study that a researcher
accidentally (incidentally) come into contact with a certain period of time are given
attention.
Example: Standing at a certain corner, a researcher interviews a
certain number of respondents passing by, between, say 9:30-11:30 on
Wednesday and Friday, or A medical Doctor when used his or her out patients who
came to the hospital on Monday morning, or A teacher using his or her student
who came to the school on Saturday morning, etc are good examples of accidental
sampling.
 2) Purposive Sampling.
• In this sampling procedure the researcher aims at selecting subjects who in his
or her opinion is thought to be relevant to the study. It is more of judgmental in
making decisions with regard to the sample.
Example: To conduct a study on the relevance of health education to be taught as
an independent or integrated subject, the researcher purposefully selects
• Science teachers
• Home-economics teachers
• Members of Red Cross and anti-aids clubs, and.
 3) Quota Sampling
: In this _technique, the researcher sets a "quota" of subjects to be selected form
specific population groups by defining the basis of choice (e.g. gender, martial
status education, etc) and determining its size, That is, choosing sample units
according to their proportion in the target population. It is a non-random
Proportional stratified sampling procedure.
Example: Suppose a school teacher may attempt to study "the effect of gender on
language acquisition and its product" .
• Let the number .of female and male pupils in the school is 400and
680,'espectively.
• Let 10% from each group is included in the study (i.e 40 and 68 for the
respective groups)
• The total sample numbers 108.
• In the selection process the subjects do not have equal chance of being selected.
 4) Snowball Sampling:
• In this type of sampling, the researcher begins the study
with the few subjects who are available to him/her.
• He/she subsequently asks these subjects recommend
any other persons who meet the criteria of the research
and who might will to participate in study. This process
continues until the sample is saturated.
 2.7. Data Collection Methods
The investigation has been carried out to provide evidence which will answer the
research question and therefore explain why the change have or have not achieved
the postulated improvement in the teaching learning situation.
• There are no formal or universal rules for which a researcher may follow in
organizing the data in various units, patterns, or categories.
• However, data collected by means of questionnaire interviews, diaries or any
other method mean very little until they are analyzed and evaluated.
• Hence, raw data taken from various sources need to be recorded,
analyzed and interpreted.
• Analysis means to break something down into its component parts so
that it can be understood. In action research, data are analyzed and
organized in to categories so that others might come to understand the
reality you are trying to represent.
• For this, the researcher is constantly looking for similarities and
differences, for groupings, patterns and items of particular significance.
• In this regard, the following are key words or constructs to consider;
• Themes - i.e. the consistent idea which emerged;
• Incidence i.e. now often something occurred or that the number of questionnaire replies
which said the same thing.
• Patterns i.e. the liming of the occurrences whether they are in single or in cluster;
• Trends i.e. the frequency of the patterns.
• It is only by comparing the data which emerged over several episodes that these can be
identified and tallied and as a result the explanations and claims be justified.
• What instruments were used: questionnaire, interview, observation checklist, document
analysis, field notes, focus group discussion, tests, etc?
• What was the nature of instruments used?
• What was the number of items/questions included in the questionnaire? By whom they
were produced; by the researcher or adapted from other authors should be discussed.
Data Collection Procedures
• The time and place of the data collected
• By whom were they collected; by the researcher or by assistants?
• Were the subjects instructed how to provide the data?
 2.8. Data Collecting Instruments

Data collecting instruments are tools that are used to collect information related to
your study problem any researcher is required to collect data or information in order
to reach to feasible findings. The information he or she collected will enable him to
understand current situation of his study problem
1) QUESTIONNAIRES
• Self report data collection instrument filled out by research participants is known as
a questionnaires Researchers can get information about the thoughts, feelings
attitudes, beliefs, Values, perceptions, personality and behavioral intentions of
research participants.
• Advantage of Questionnaire
• Simple to administer
• Easy and to complete
• Provide opportunity to direct response
• Provide wide coverage of data
 Disadvantages
• Give chance for probing
• Response may not be truthful
• give no room to motivate the respondents
• Time consuming to prepare good ideas
• cannot be used effectively with children
 2) OBSERVATION

Observation is defined as the watching of behavioral patterns of people in certain

situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. Observation
is an important way of collecting information about people because people do
not always do what they say they do. It is a maxim in the social and behavioral
sciences attitudes (internal behavior) and behaviors (observable) are not always
congruent.
Some of the draw backs of observation include:
• It is diffuse - the focus is wide - ranging, details get lost
• It is biased - observations are acted upon with a minimum of reflection. There is
a danger of seeing" What one wants to see,
• It is ephemeral - observations are held in memory for only a very short period of
time so that it is difficult to subject them to detailed examination.
 Con…
• It can be particularly useful to discover whether people do what they say they do, or behave in the way they claim
to behave.
• Recording Observations:-The main problem in direct observation is keeping a record for later use. The record can
be made either during or after the observation.
• Keeping a record during the observation:-Time is a rare commodity for teacher during lessons. It may save time
to use an observation schedule with predefined categories. In the lesson each relevant event is them assigned to a
category and there by recorded.
• Making a record of Observation:-It is usually much easier for teacher - researchers to make a record of the
observations after the event. Even though this may mean that some details will be lost. In most cases, the teacher
will not be able to write a full record immediately after the observation. However, the most important
observations should be recorded as soon as possible, at least in the form of brief notes make it possible to
produce a fuller reconstruction at a later time.
• Anecdotes:-It is based on story about an event which is striking or surprising. Anecdotes usually arise from
surprising experience stands out from the stream of familiar events. There is a discrepancy between expectation
and reality which can help us to develop a new practical theory as the basis for changes in our practice.
• Recording a surprising event as anecdote saves it from being for gotten and makes it available for further analysis
and discussion. Writing anecdotes is not difficult and is a good way of recording first - hand experiences by
describing situations and kinds of behavior.
 Anecdotes Contain:

• A description of where and when the event occurred and the people
concerned
• Enough back ground information to give the context of the event
• An account of the event (it should be written in a narrative form,
important statements, answers, questions made by the main
participants should be quoted exactly in order to retain authenticity and
immediacy of the situation.
• Field Notes:-Are the written observing of what you see taking place in
your classroom. Field notes help you notice details you might not other
wise have noticed. And as you make many observations over time,
 3) INTERVIEW
The interview is in a sense a questionnaire.
Instead of writing the response, the subject or interviewee
gives the needed information orally and face - to fact (or via
the telephone).
 Interview can be used in both quantitative and qualitative
research.
With a skillful interview, the interview is often superior to
other data gathering tools. One reason is that people are
usually more willing to talk than to write.
 Advantages of Interview

• Interviewer can explain more explicitly the investigation is purpose and what information
he/she wants,
• Misinterpretations of the interviewee, immediately avoided with clarifying questions.
• Truth fullness of information's could be checked in various ways. During interview session.
• Exploration of significant areas not anticipated in the original plan of investigation is
possible.
• People are usually more willing to talk than to write.
Disadvantage of Interview
1) It is a very expensive method
2) There is the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondents
3) Certain types respond such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable.
4) This method is relatively more time consuming
5) The presence of the respondent, responding false information to please the interviewer.
 Types of Interview Questions

The aim of an interview is to learn from one or more people what you do
I. Structured Interview:- is one in which the procedure to be followed is
standardized and is determine in advance of interview.
•It involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized
recording techniques. In other words, in this method of data collection, the same
type questions are presented in the same order to each interviewee, and wording of
instructions to the interviewees is specified.
•.
II. Unstructured Interview:-
•is characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. Although the series
of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided up on
beforehand, the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form, order and timing
of the questions. He can thus rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some
new questions to his /her list. Some writers label unstructured interview as
unfocused "in-depth and non- directive.
Unstructured interview is found to be very important technique of data
collection in case of exploratory research studies.
• not yet knew, but consider being important
4. DIARIES

On the face of it, dairies are an attractive way of gathering information

about the way individuals spend their time. Such diaries are not records
of engagements or personal journals of thoughts and activities, but
records or logs of professional activities. They can provide valuable
information about work patterns and activities; provided subjects are
clear what they are being asked to do why.
2.9. Data Analysis and
Interpretation
• You remember that aims of researching problems are various;
• the aim may be solving immediate local problems or
• developing theories and adding new knowledge.
• In those types of research works which aim, at the development of
theories and new knowledge (basic research) complex techniques of
statistical analysis are used unlike those research works which aim at
finding practical local solution, for immediate problems.
CON…
• the selection techniques of analysis (be statistical or qualitative) that matches
to the nature of topic and hypothesis.
A. Using Statistical Methods
I) Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistical measures are used to describe
characteristics of a sample or population totality.
II) Measures of central tendency: measures of central tendency indicate central
position of distribution. These measures can be determined both ungrouped and
grouped data. They are the mean the median and the mode.
III) Measures of variability or dispersion:-They tell us about the dispersi6n of
scores in a distribution they include:
The Range:This is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores
• Range= Highest score-lowest score
Class work

The Mean
Find the mean of 5, 8, 9, and 2.
The Median
3 5 7 8 15
4 5 7 8 14 15
Find the mode and range.
5 7 8 9 9 9 10 11 11 12
 2) Inferential l statistics

Inferential statistics are useful to enable the researcher to make generalizations

or inference about populations from observation of the characteristics of
samples.
B/ Using Qualitative Approach
Qualitative data are expressed in the form of words rather than numbers.
Qualitative data analysis is designed to be used to organize and analyze
qualitative data such as text from interviews, historical or legal documents,
documentary materials and observation notes.
 Con…
Data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying,
abstracting and transforming the data appearing in written up filed notes.
Writing summaries, testing and themes, making clusters, making partitions
etc are all different phases of data reduction.
Data reduction is forms of analysis that sharpens sorts, focuses, discards and
organized data. In such a way that “final” conclusion can be drawn and
verified.
Data display is organized assembly of information that permits conclusion
and action taking, reducing complex information into selective and simplified
or easily understandable configuration is necessary.
Conclusion drawing data displays enable to note regularities patterns,
explanations, and possible configuration, causal flows and propositions. The
explanation or meaning given to this observation is the conclusion to drawn.
 Unit Three
DEVELOPING ACTION RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Objectives
• After successful completion of this unit, you are expected to:
• be familiar with the techniques of writing action research proposal
• Develop appropriate research tools for action research proposal
• Identify researchable problems
• Devise a research proposal
• Conduct an action research project
 3.1. Components of Action
research
Identifying proposal
the Research Problem
• Selecting a topic for investigation is more difficult than it seems at first, however,
you may be given a topic to research, in which case the decision is always taken
for you, but in most cases you will be asked to select a topic from a list or to
decide on a topic yourself.
• Since action research emanates from reflection and analysis of current practice,
the researcher focuses on a "problem "which needs to be explained. This may
mean Re-examining established ways of teaching or class room procedures, or if
there is a gap in present practice, trying something for the first time.
• Anyway, the topic should be a particular area of interest that you would like to
explore.
• Consult the librarian or try to get what has been written on similar topics and
talk to your colleagues and fellow students.
1. Background of the study
• This part may not be included in some action research project, if the
action research is small scale
• Assesses the background of the problem
• World context, if any
• Country context, if any
• The specific context, mandatory
2. Objective of the study

• What is going to be done in the course of the study?

• What are the tasks of the researcher as the study in progress?
3. Significance of the study

• The why of the study, what is/are the relevance(s) or importance(s) of

studying that problem?
• To whom is the study significant: forteachers, students, curriculum
designers, parents or what? How?
4 Definitions of Important terms
(concepts)
• Operational definitions may be given by the researcher him/herself;
not necessarily dictionary or encyclopedia definitions.
5. Data Gathering and Processing Ways

• After formulating the research question, the critical question becomes the
issue of "what action(s) can stake together evidence to answer the
research question.
• That means when you have decided on a topic refined it and specified
objectives, you will be in a position to consider how to collect the evidence
you require.
• 'What do I need to know and why? 'Only there you ask, 'What is the best
way to collect information? 'When I have this information, what shall I do
with it There, decisions have to be made about which methods are best
for particular purposes and then data collecting instruments must be
designed to do the job.
• Action research needs to be planned in the same systematic way as
any type of research, and the methods selected for gathering
information will depend on the nature of the information required.
• Whatever procedures for collecting data is selected, it should always
be examined initially to assess to what extent it is likely to be reliable
and valid
Reliability:

• Is the extent to which a test or a producers similar results under constant

conditions. On all occasions, E.g.
• A clock which runs ten minutes slows some days and pass on other days
is unreliable.
• A factual question which may produce one type of answer one occasion
but a different answer on another is equally unreliable.
• The check for reliability will come at the stage of question working and
piloting of the instrument. Therefore, ask yourself whether another
researcher using such research instrument would be likely to get the
same responses. This is due to the fact that research instruments are
selected and devised to enable you to abstain the answers for the
research questions.
Validity:

• The question of validity is difficult item measure or describe. Observing all

the principles and constantly asking the following questions does give a
measure of validity.
• These are:
• Are the questions clearly formulated so that the answers will provide data to
illuminate the research question Is?
• Are the procedures clear so that all stages of investigation can be evaluated in
context?
• Have steps to reduce bias and help reliability been taken.
• Can the claims that are made be legitimately? Derived from the questions, the
action plan, and the evidence which was gathered? In short, are the claims valid?
6. Proposed Action /Strategy/:-Present the proposed action, Indicate
what actions were planned to alleviate the problem under study
7. Implementation:-On the basis of the proposed action, briefly
describe your implementation of the proposed actions.
8. Time Schedule :-The researcher will have to consider the time for
completing the study. The study should be divided in to phases. And
assigning dates for completion of each phase in the specified time
schedule is necessary.
 CON…

Task Components Time Distribution

Nov 2016 Dec 2016 Jan 2017 Feb 2017 March 2017 April 2017

Phase 1: preliminary works

 Selecting a research topic 
 Reviewing literature  
 Preparing the research proposal 


Phase 2: Data Collection

 Preparing sample, frame  
 Constructing instruments 
 Duplicating and distributing instruments for collecting data


Phase 3 :- Data analysis 

 Tabulating and organizing the data 
 Analyzing the data 

 Interpreting the findings

Phase 4: completion
 Writing the research report  
 Editing and proof reading 
 Submitting the first draft Resubmitting the final draft
9.COST BREAKDOWN

No Items Cost Remark

1 Stationery materials .

2 Transportation

3 Per diem

4 Secretary

5 Compiling

6 Other /contingency /expense

7 Total
 Unit Four
Writing Action Research Report

A research report is the only concrete evidence of your research, and the
quality of the research may be judged directly by the quality of the writing and
how well you convey the importance of your findings.
Fortunately, action research reports, which are similar to research articles,
technical reports, lab reports, formal reports, or scientific papers (to name a
few), have a fairly consistent format that will help you to organize your
information clearly.
Contents to be included in an action research report.

1. Preliminary Parts
I. Title Page /Inner Page/
• It is important to take your audience into account when developing a
title for your action research report.
• It is a good idea to develop a "working title" for your project as you
draft your report initially, but be open to change your title after you
have finished writing to accurately reflect your project.
The title page of the research report normally contains five main pieces
of information:
the report title,
the name of the researcher,
the institution to which the research report to be submitted
the date of submission
the place of submission (city or town)
II. Acknowledgements
• Acknowledgement is a research report section where you express your
gratitude to those individuals who assisted you in the process of your
investigation. Acknowledgements must be simple and restricted to those
who had significant contribution in the course of the study.
Activities
• Whom do we acknowledge in a research report?
• Is it always necessary to acknowledge somebody?
• Why do we acknowledge people?
III. Table of Contents
• Most reports will contain a Table of Contents that lists the report's
contents and demonstrates how the report has been organized. You
should list each major section in your Table of Contents.
• Sometimes you may want to use additional descriptive headings
throughout your report and for your Table of Contents.
• IV. Abstract
• An abstract is an accurate representation of the contents of a
document in an abbreviated form. An abstract can be the most
difficult part of the research report to write because in it you must
introduce your subject matter, tell what was done, and present
selected results, all in one short paragraph.
 2. Main Body

Part I
I. Background of the study
• This part may not be included in some action research project, if the
action research is small scale
• Assesses the background of the problem
• World context, if any
• Country context, if any
• The specific context, mandatory
• The rationale for conducting the study
• The magnitude (how wide spread and important) of the problem
• Leading research question and/or hypothesis
II. Objective of the Study
• What is going to be done in the course of the study?
• What are the tasks of the researcher as the study in progress?
III. Significance of the study
• The why of the study, what is/are the relevance(s) or importance(s) of studying
that problem?
• To whom is the study significant: forteachers, students, curriculum designers,
parents or what? How?
IV. Definitions of Important terms (concepts)
• Operational definitions may be appeared by the researcher him/herself; not
necessarily dictionary or encyclopedia definitions
Part II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Discussing the theoretical background of the study and related
research works.
• Note that: in some action research style review literature may not be
included. So you should not worry if you don't have the review
literature section.
Activities What is the purpose of review of related literature in
research? Discuss
 Part III
Data Collection and Analysis
I. Defining population and Determine sample Size
Target population and sample of the study
• Who are the subjects of the study?
• What is their total number?
• How many individuals are going to be included in the study?
• How are the samples going to be selected? Randomly or purposely?
II. Data Collection Methods
• What instruments were used: questionnaire, interview, observation checklist, document analysis,
field notes, focus group discussion, tests, etc?
What was the nature of instruments used?
• What was the number of items/questions included in the questionnaire? By whom they were
produced; by the researcher or adapted from other authors should be discussed.
III. Data Collection Procedures
• The time and place of the data collected
• By whom were they collected; by the researcher or by assistants?
• Were the subjects instructed how to provide the data?
IV. Data Analysis Techniques
• If the data were qualitative, present in narrative manner
• If the data were quantitative use different statistical techniques:
mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient, t-test, ANOV A,
regression analysis, etc.
 Analyze Data
• Indicate systematically the major findings of the study against the leading
research question and/or hypotheses
• Use statistical techniques mentioned in the design part appropriately
• Present the data systematically and analysis thoroughly and relate the
results with those literature mentioned in the literature review part.
• If tables and figures are used, do they have numbers and titles that
clearly explain the contents of the tables and figures?
Part IV

Discussions
I. Proposed Action /Strategy/ Used
On the basis of the data analyzed,
• on the bases of your finding ,indicate what actions were taken to alleviate the problem
under study
II. Implemented Action
• On the basis of the proposed action, briefly describe your implementation of the
proposed actions. What did you implemented should be narrated.
III. Evaluated Action
• Based on the action taken, indicate whether you found what you planned. evaluate the
extent action taken brought the desired result
IV. Conclusions and Recommendations
• On the basis of the evaluation, list possible solutions for the problem(s) encountered.
• Questionnaires, formulas, interview questions, or any other materials should be
 Generally, an action research report will include the
following sections:
• Title page/cover page/
• Inner Page
• Acknowledgements
• Abstract
• Table of contents
• Statement of the problem
• Basic questions /hypothesis
• Purpose of the study
• Significance of the study
• Definition of technical terms
• Review of related literature
• Methodology Analysis and Discussion
• Findings/results Summary and conclusion
• Recommendations
• List of References
3. End Parts

• I. List of References/ Bibliography

• It is important to include a References section at the end of a report
in which you used other sources. Informal or short reports may not
have a references section or only a short one while more formal
reports will likely have reference sections, sometimes very lengthy
ones.
• Reference sections are important because, like the sections on the
procedure you used to gather data, they allow other researchers to
build on or to duplicate your research.
CON…
• The important thing is that you give the reader what he/she needs to
find the articles you have cited. For journals, both the volume and the
year are usually needed as well as the page numbers, because
mistakes are common. If you really want to do it "right" pick a journal
and imitate the style. Information to include on your reference list:
• Author's name or authors' names
• Title of the document I book, etc
• Identification information
• The important thing is that you give the reader what he/she needs to find the articles you have
cited. For journals, both the volume and the year are usually needed as well as the page
numbers, because mistakes are common. If you really want to do it "right" pick a journal and
imitate the style. Information to include on your reference list:
• Author's name or authors' names
• Title of the document I book, etc
• Identification information
• Bibliography
• How to Write Bibliography
• 1. For books use the following format
• Author's name (Year of publication).Title.place of publication: publisher
• Example: Anderson, J.(1998) Research Methods: Social Science. New Delhi: Longman Publishers
2. For Journals
• Authors name (Year)."Title of an article".The Journal
• Title. Volume, Number, Page. Example Carnr, P.(1994), "New Tool for an Ancient Art"Computer& the
Humanities. Vol 64, No 2, P 6-9
3. For edited books
• The number of edition is placed in a bracket after the title of the book.
• Example: Anastasi, A.(1976). Psychological testing (4thed). New
York Collier Macmillan International edition.
4. For NewspaperAuthors name( date) "title of the article" Name of the
• Newspaper.Volume (Number), page.
• Example TewodrosKiros (2001 4th July). "introducingDemocracy"The Reporter 5,(252),4.
• 5. For encyclopedia sources
• Authors name (data)"Title of the article "Title of the Encyclopedia Vol (in capital Roman numbers), Page.
• research module.docx