Proteins and Amino Acids

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What Are Proteins?
 Large molecules
 Made up of chains of amino acids
 Are found in every cell in the body
 Are involved in most of the body’s functions and life
processes
 The sequence of amino acids is determined by DNA

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Structure of Proteins
 Made up of chains of amino acids; classified by number of
amino acids in a chain
• Peptides: fewer than 50 amino acids
- Dipeptides: 2 amino acids
- Tripeptides: 3 amino acids
- Polypeptides: more than 10 amino acids
• Proteins: more than 50 amino acids
- Typically 100 to 10,000 amino acids linked together
 Chains are synthesizes based on specific bodily DNA
 Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen

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Structural Differences Between Carbohydrates,
Lipids, and Proteins

Figure 6.1
The Anatomy of an Amino Acid

Figure 6.2b
Peptide Bonds Link Amino Acids
 Form when the acid group (COOH) of one amino acid joins
with the amine group (NH2) of a second amino acid
 Formed through condensation
 Broken through hydrolysis

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Condensation and Hydrolytic Reactions

Figure 6.3
Essential, Nonessential, and Conditional
 Essential – must be consumed in the diet
 Nonessential – can be synthesized in the body
 Conditionally essential – cannot be synthesized due to
illness or lack of necessary precursors
• Premature infants lack sufficient enzymes needed to
create arginine

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Structure of the Protein
 Four levels of structure
• Primary structure
• Secondary structure
• Tertiary structure
• Quaternary structure

Any alteration in the structure or sequencing changes

the shape and function of the protein

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Denaturing
 Alteration of the protein’s shape and thus functions through
the use of
• Heat
• Acids
• Bases
• Salts
• Mechanical agitation
 Primary structure is unchanged by denaturing

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Denaturing a Protein

Figure 6.5
Protein Digestion: Part 1

Figure 6.6
Protein Digestion: Part 2

Figure 6.6
Protein Digestion: Part 3

Figure 6.6
Protein Digestion: Part 4

Figure 6.6
Amino Acid Absorption
 Amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine
 Amino acids are transported to the liver from the intestines
via the portal vein
 In the liver, amino acids are
• Used to synthesize new proteins
• Converted to energy, glucose, or fat
• Released to the bloodstream and transported to cells
throughout the body
 Occasionally proteins are absorbed intact

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Amino Acid Metabolism
 Liver metabolizes amino acids, depending on bodily needs
 Most amino acids are sent into the blood to be picked up
and used by the cells
• Amino acid pool is limited but has many uses
 Protein turnover – the continual degradation and
synthesizing of protein

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Protein Synthesis

Figure 6.8
Deamination
 When the amino acid pool reaches capacity the amino acids
are broken down to their component parts for other uses
 First deamination must occur
 Carbon-containing remnants are
• Converted to glucose, if they are glucogenic amino acids,
through gluconeogenesis (the process by which the
body produces glucose from noncarbohydrate
precursors during periods of starvation or intense
exercise when the body's normal stores and sources
of glucose are not sufficient to meet its needs.)
PRECURSOR- a substance from which another is formed,
especially by metabolic reaction.
• Converted to fatty acids and stored as triglycerides in
adipose tissue
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Metabolic Fate of Amino Acids

Figure 6.7
Quick Review
 During digestion
• Proteins are broken down to amino acids with the help of
- Gastric juices
- Enzymes in the stomach and small intestine
- Enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine lining
 Limited supply of amino acids exist in the amino acid pool
 The amino acid pool acts as a reservoir for protein
synthesis
 Surplus amino acids are
• Deaminated
- Used for glucose or energy
- Stored as fat
- Nitrogen is converted to urea and excreted in urine
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How Does the Body Use Protein?
 Functions of protein
• Provide structural and mechanical support
• Maintain body tissues
• Functions as enzymes and hormones
• Help maintain acid base balance
• Transport nutrients
• Assist the immune system
• Serve as a source of energy when necessary

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Quick Review
 Protein plays many important roles in the body, including:
• Helping facilitate muscular contraction
• Promoting satiety and appetite control

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How Much Protein Do You Need?
 Healthy, nonpregnant adults
• Should consume enough to replace what is used every
day
• The goal is nitrogen balance
 Pregnant woman, people recovering from surgery or injury,
and growing children
• Should consume enough to build new tissue

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Nitrogen Balance and Imbalance

Figure 6.12
Not All Protein Is Created Equal
 High quality protein
• Is digestible
• Contains all essential amino acids
• Provides sufficient protein to synthesize nonessential amino
acids
 It helps to be aware of:
• Amino acid score
• Limiting protein
• Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS)
• Biological value of protein rates absorption and retention of
protein for use

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Protein Quality
 Complete proteins
• Contain all nine essential amino acids
• Usually animal source are complete proteins
• Are considered higher quality
 Incomplete proteins
• Low in one or more essential amino acid
• Usually plant sources are incomplete

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Protein Needs
 Protein intake recommendations
• 10–35% of total daily kilocalories
• Adults over 18
- 0.8 g/kg daily

 American College of Sports Medicine, the American

Dietetic Association, and other experts advocate
• 50–100% more protein for competitive athletes
participating in endurance exercise or resistance exercise
• Typically this population eats more and therefore gets
additional protein

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Quick Review
 Protein quality is determined by digestibility and types and
amounts of amino acids
 Animal protein is more easily digested and complete
 Plant proteins are typically incomplete, except soy
 Plant proteins can be complemented with proteins from
other plant sources or animal source to improve their
quality
 Adults should consume 0.8 g/kg/d of protein
 Men and women in the United States tend to over consume
protein

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Best Sources of Protein
 Proteins are abundant in
• Dairy foods
• Meats
• Poultry
• Meat alternatives such as dried beans, peanut butter,
nuts, and soy
 3 oz serving of cooked meat, poultry, or fish
• Provides 21–25 grams of protein
• About 7 g/oz
• About the size of a deck of cards
• Adequate amount for one meal

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Quick Review
 A well-balanced diet can meet daily protein needs
 Best source of protein are animal products
• Eggs
• Lean meats
• Low-fat or fat-free dairy products
 Plant proteins such as soy, grains, and vegetables supply
substantial proteins
 Most people consume adequate protein from their diet and
do not need protein supplements

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Protein Bars
 Are marketed as convenient and portable
 Can be
• High in saturated fat and/or sugar
• Low in fiber
• Expensive
 A peanut butter sandwich is portable and lower in saturated
fat and sugar and higher in fiber than some protein bars

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Eating Too Much Protein
 Risk of heart disease
 Risk of kidney stones
 Risk of calcium loss from bones
 Risk of colon cancer
 Displacement of other nutrient-rich, disease preventing
foods

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Eating Too Little Protein
 Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)
• Protein is used for energy rather than its other functions
in the body
• Other important nutrients are in short supply
• More prevalent in infants and children
- 17,000 children die each day as a result

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Too Little Protein
 Without adequate protein
• Cells lining the GI tract are not sufficiently replaced as
they slough off
• Digestive function is inhibited
• Absorption of food is reduced
• Intestinal bacteria gets into the blood and causes
septicemia
• Immune system is compromised due to malnutrition and
cannot fight infection

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Types of PEM: Kwashiorkor
 Severe protein deficiency
• Generally result of a diet high in
grains and deficient in protein
 Symptoms range from
• Edema in legs, feet, and stomach
• Muscle tone and strength diminish
• Hair is brittle and easy to pull out
• Appear pale, sad, and apathetic
• Prone to infection, rapid heart rate,
excess fluid in lungs, pneumonia,
septicemia, and water and
electrolyte imbalances
(Image from http://www.thachers.org/pediatrics.htm)

Figure 6.16
Types of PEM: Marasmus
 Results from a severe deficiency in
kilocalories
• Frail, emaciated appearance
• Weakened and appear apathetic
• Many cannot stand without
support
• Look old
• Hair is thin, dry, and lacks sheen
• Body temperature and blood
pressure are low
• Prone to dehydration, infections,
and unnecessary blood clotting

Figure 6.17
Types of PEM: Marasmic Kwashiorkor
 Chronic deficiency in kilocalories
and protein
• Have edema in legs and arms
• Have a “skin and bones”
appearance
• With treatment the edema
subsides and appearance becomes
more like someone with marasmus

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Treatment for PEM
 Medical and nutritional treatment can dramatically reduce
mortality rate
 Should be carefully and slowly implemented
• Step 1 – Address life-threatening factors
- Severe dehydration
- Fluid and nutrient imbalances
• Step 2 – Restore depleted tissue
- Gradually provide nutritionally dense kilocalories and
high-quality protein
• Step 3 – Transition to foods and introduce physical
activity

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Quick Review
 High-protein diet may play a role in increasing risk of heart
disease, kidney problems, and calcium loss from bones
 Consuming too much protein from animal sources increase
saturated fat intake
 Too much protein can displace whole grains, fruits, and
vegetables, which have been shown to reduce many chronic
diseases
 Low-protein diet can lead to loss of bone mass
 PEM is caused by inadequate protein and/or kilocalorie
intake
• Kwashiorkor – severe protein deficiency
• Marasmus – severe kilocalorie deficiency

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Vegetarian Diet
 People choose vegetarian diets for a variety of reasons
• Ethical
• Religious
• Environmental
• Health

 Vegetarians must consume adequate amounts of a variety

of food and should plan meals well

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Potential Benefits, Risks of a Vegetarian Diet
 Benefits of a healthy vegetarian diet
• Reduced risk of
- Heart disease - Cancer
- High blood pressure - Stroke
- Diabetes - Obesity

 Potential risks of a vegetarian diet

• Underconsumption of certain nutrients
- Protein
- Vitamin B12

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Vegetarian Food Guide Pyramid

Figure 6.18
Soy
 Soy is increasing in popularity in the United States
• High-quality protein source
• Low in saturated fat
• Contains isoflavones
• Phytoestrogens
• May reduce risk of heart disease
• Some research suggests it may reduce the risk of cancer
• Some concern it may promote breast cancer

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Quick Review
 Vegetarian diets can be a healthy eating style that may help
reduce the risk of some chronic disease
 Some vegetarians abstain from all animal products
 Some vegetarians eat eggs and dairy in limited amounts
 Vegetarians must plan their diets carefully to meet their
nutrient needs, especially
• Protein • Riboflavin
• Vitamin B12
• Iron • Vitamin A
• Zinc • Omega-3 fatty acids
• Calcium
• Vitamin D

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Putting It All Together
 Majority of daily kilocalories should come from
carbohydrate-rich foods
 Fat intake should be no more than about one-third of daily
kilocalories
 Protein should provide the rest of the daily kilocalories

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Putting It All Together
 Best plan for a healthful diet
• Eat an abundance of
- Grains (at least ½ whole grains)
- Vegetables
- Fruits
• Eat modest amounts of
- Commercially made bakery and snack items
- Vegetables with creamy sauces or added butter
- Sweets
• Choose low-fat dairy products, lean meat, poultry, and fish
to minimize the intake of heart-unhealthy saturated fats

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