CCCN 312 Computer Networks

Instructor: YOUR NAME

1st Trimester 2022/23
Chapter 5
Network
Layer:
Control
Plane
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Computer Networking: A
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Top-Down Approach
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR 8th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
All material copyright 1996-2020
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved Pearson, 2020
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

Network Layer: 5-3

Recall Network-layer functions
 forwarding: move packets from router’s
input to appropriate router output data plane
 routing: determine route taken by
packets from source to destination
control plane

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

 per-router control (traditional)
 logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: 5-4

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

Network Layer: 5-5

Routing protocols mobile network
national or global ISP
Routing protocol goal: determine
“good” paths (equivalently, routes), application
from sending hosts to receiving host, transport
network

through network of routers link

physical
network network

 path: sequence of routers packets

link link
physical physical

traverse from given initial source host network

link network

to final destination host physical link

physical network
link datacenter
physical network
 “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least
congested” application
transport
network
enterprise link
network physical

Network Layer: 5-6

Graph abstraction:
link costs
5
ca,b: cost of direct link connecting a and b
3
v w 5 e.g., cw,z = 5, cu,z = ∞
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 cost defined by network operator:
2
x 1
y could always be 1, or inversely related
to bandwidth, or inversely related to
congestion
graph: G = (N,E)
N: set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E: set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: 5-7

Routing algorithm
classification
Q: global or decentralized information?

Global\centralized:
 computes the least-cost path between a source and destination using complete, global knowledge
about the network (connectivity & link costs)
 all routers have complete topology & link cost info
 Called “link state” algorithms
 Ex: Dijkstra Algorithm

Local\Decentralized:
 No node has complete information about the costs of all network links.
 router knows physically-connected neighbors. “Neighbors link costs”
 iterative process of computation: exchange of info with neighbors and compute new least cost paths.
 Called “distance vector” algorithms
Network Layer: 5-8
Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
LS algorithm DV algorithm
 Requires global information.  each node talks to only its directly
 each node needs to communicate connected neighbors,
with all other nodes (via  it provides its neighbors with least
broadcast), cost estimates from itself to all the
 it tells them only the costs of its nodes (that it knows about) in the
directly connected links. network
 If n routers, O(n2) messages  Convergence time may be long
broadcast

Network Layer: 5-9

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

Network Layer: 5-10

Making routing scalable
our routing study thus far - idealized
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: billions of destinations: administrative autonomy:
 can’t store all destinations in  Internet: a network of networks
routing tables!  each network admin may want to
 routing table exchange would control routing in its own network
swamp links!

Network Layer: 5-11

Internet approach to scalable routing
aggregate routers into regions known as “autonomous
systems” (AS) (a.k.a. “domains”)

intra-AS (aka “intra-domain”): inter-AS (aka “inter-domain”):

routing among within same AS routing among AS’es
(“network”)  gateways perform inter-domain
 all routers in AS must run same intra- routing (as well as intra-domain
domain protocol routing)
 routers in different AS can run different
intra-domain routing protocols
 gateway router: at “edge” of its own AS,
has link(s) to router(s) in other AS’es
Network Layer: 5-12
Interconnected ASes
forwarding table configured by intra-
and inter-AS routing algorithms
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing  intra-AS routing determine entries for
forwarding destinations within AS
table
 inter-AS & intra-AS determine entries
for external destinations

intra-AS
3c
routing3a inter-AS routing intra-AS
2c
3b 2a routing
2b
1c
AS3 intra-AS
1a routing 1b AS2
1d
AS1

Network Layer: 5-13

Inter-AS routing: routing within an AS
most common intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol [RFC 1723]
• classic DV: DVs exchanged every 30 secs
• no longer widely used
 EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• DV based
• formerly Cisco-proprietary for decades (became open in 2013 [RFC 7868])
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First [RFC 2328]
• link-state routing
• IS-IS protocol (ISO standard, not RFC standard) essentially same as OSPF

Network Layer: 5-14

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
routing
 “open”: publicly available
 classic link-state
• each router floods OSPF link-state advertisements (directly over IP
rather than using TCP/UDP) to all other routers in entire AS
• multiple link costs metrics possible: bandwidth, delay
• each router has full topology, uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute
forwarding table
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious
intrusion)

Network Layer: 5-15

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

Network Layer: 5-16

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto inter-domain routing
protocol
• “glue that holds the Internet together”
 allows subnet to advertise its existence, and the destinations it can
reach, to rest of Internet: “I am here, here is who I can reach, and how”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
• eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring ASes
• iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-internal routers.
• determine “good” routes to other networks based on reachability information
and policy

Network Layer: 5-17

eBGP, iBGP connections
2b

2a 2c
∂
1b 3b
2d
1a 1c ∂
3a 3c
AS 2
1d 3d

AS 1 eBGP connectivity AS 3
logical iBGP connectivity

1c gateway routers run both eBGP and iBGP protocols

Network Layer: 5-18

BGP basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP messages over
TCP connection:
• advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (BGP is a “path
vector” protocol)
 when AS3 gateway 3a advertises path AS3,X to AS2 gateway 2c:
• AS3 promises to AS2 it will forward datagrams towards X
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d
2b
1d BGP advertisement:
2a 2c X
AS3, X
2d
Network Layer: 5-19
Path attributes and BGP routes
 BGP advertised route: prefix + attributes
• prefix: destination being advertised
• two important attributes:
• AS-PATH: list of ASes through which prefix advertisement has passed
• NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS
 policy-based routing:
• gateway receiving route advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline path (e.g., never route through AS Y).
• AS policy also determines whether to advertise path to other other
neighboring ASes

Network Layer: 5-20

BGP path advertisement
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

 AS2 router 2c receives path advertisement AS3,X (via eBGP) from AS3 router 3a
 based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2c accepts path AS3,X, propagates (via iBGP) to all
AS2 routers
 based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2a advertises (via eBGP) path AS2, AS3, X to
AS1 router 1c
Network Layer: 5-21
BGP path advertisement (more)
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b AS3,X 3a 3c
AS3,X
AS3,X
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
AS3,X
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

gateway router may learn about multiple paths to destination:

 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS2,AS3,X from 2a
 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS3,X from 3a
 based on policy, AS1 gateway router 1c chooses path AS3,X and advertises path
within AS1 via iBGP
Network Layer: 5-22
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
 inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its network
 intra-AS: single admin, so policy less of an issue
scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
performance:
 intra-AS: can focus on performance
 inter-AS: policy dominates over performance

Network Layer: 5-23

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol

Network Layer: 5-24

ICMP: internet control message protocol
 used by hosts and routers to
Type Code description
communicate network-level 0 0 echo reply (ping)
information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
3 1 dest host unreachable
• error reporting: unreachable host, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
• echo request/reply (used by ping) 3 6 dest network unknown
3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
• ICMP messages carried in IP control - not used)
8 0 echo request (ping)
datagrams 9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, code plus first 10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
8 bytes of IP datagram causing 12 0 bad IP header
error
Network Layer: 4-25
Traceroute and ICMP
3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

 source sends sets of UDP segments to

stopping criteria:
destination  UDP segment eventually
• 1st set has TTL =1, 2nd set has TTL=2, etc. arrives at destination host
 datagram in nth set arrives to nth router:  destination returns ICMP
• router discards datagram and sends source “port unreachable”
ICMP message (type 11, code 0) message (type 3, code 3)
 source stops
• ICMP message possibly includes name of
router & IP address
 when ICMP message arrives at source: record RTTs
Network Layer: 4-26
Network layer: Summary
we’ve learned a lot!
 approaches to network control plane
• per-router control (traditional)
• logically centralized control (software defined networking)
 traditional routing algorithms
• implementation in Internet: OSPF , BGP
 Internet Control Message Protocol

next stop: link layer!

Network Layer: 5-27