Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

The Digestive System

and Body Metabolism
 The Digestive System and Body
Metabolism
 Digestion
Breakdown of ingested food
 Absorption
Passage of nutrients into the blood
 Metabolism
Production of cellular energy (ATP)
Organs of the Digestive System

 Two main groups

a. Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow
tube
b. Accessory digestive organs
Organs of the Digestive System
 Organs of the Alimentary Canal
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Anus
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Lips (labia) – protect
the anterior opening
 Cheeks – form the
lateral walls
 Hard palate – forms
the anterior roof
 Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof
 Uvula – fleshy
projection of the
soft palate
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Vestibule – space
between lips
externally and teeth
and gums internally
 Oral cavity – area
contained by the
teeth
 Tongue – attached
at hyoid and styloid
processes of the
skull, and by the
lingual frenulum
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

 Tonsils
Palatine tonsils
Lingual tonsil
 Processes of the Mouth

 Mastication (chewing) of food

 Mixing masticated food with saliva
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste
 Pharynx Anatomy
 Nasopharynx –
not part of the
digestive system
 Oropharynx –
posterior to oral
cavity
 Laryngopharynx –
below the oropharynx
and connected to
the esophagus
 Pharynx Function
 Serves as a passageway for air and
food
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two muscle layers
Longitudinal inner layer
Circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)
 Esophagus

 Runs from pharynx to stomach through

the diaphragm
 Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

 Mucosa
Innermost layer
Moist membrane
oSurface epithelium
oSmall amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)
oSmall smooth muscle layer
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

 Submucosa
 Just beneath the mucosa
 Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
nerve endings, and lymphatics
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

 Muscularis externa – smooth muscle

Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
 Serosa
Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum
Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
 Stomach Anatomy

 Located on the left side of the

abdominal cavity
 Food enters at the cardioesophageal
sphincter
 Stomach Anatomy

 Regions of the stomach

Cardiac region – near the heart
Fundus
Body
Pylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
 Food empties into the small intestine at
the pyloric sphincter
 Stomach Anatomy

 Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa

 External regions
Lesser curvature
Greater curvature
 Stomach Anatomy

 Layers of peritoneum attached to the

stomach
Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the
lesser curvature
Greater omentum – attaches the greater
curvature to the posterior body wall
Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and
protect abdominal organs
Stomach Anatomy
 Stomach Functions

 Acts as a storage tank for food

 Site of food breakdown
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine
 Specialized Mucosa of the
Stomach
 Simple columnar epithelium
Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky
alkaline mucus
Gastric glands – secrete gastric juice
Chief cells – produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
Enteroendocrine cells – produce gastrin
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

 Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa

 Glands and specialized cells are in the
gastric gland region
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
 Small Intestine

 The body’s major digestive organ

 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending form the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior
abdominal wall by the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
“Dogs Just Itch!
 Duodenum
Attached to the stomach
Curves around the head of the pancreas
 Jejunum
Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
 Ileum
Extends from jejunum to large intestine
 Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine

 Source of enzymes that are mixed with

chyme
Intestinal cells
Pancreas
 Bile enters from the gall bladder
Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine
 Villi of the Small Intestine

 Fingerlike
structures formed
by the mucosa
 Give the small
intestine more
surface area
 Microvilli of the Small Intestine

 Small projections of the

plasma membrane
 Found on absorptive cells
 Structures Involved in Absorption
of Nutrients

 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries
 Lacteals (specialized
lymphatic capillaries)
 Folds of the Small Intestine

 Called circular folds or plicae circulares

 Deep folds of the mucosa and
submucosa
 Do not disappear when filled with food
 The submucosa has Peyer’s patches
(collections of lymphatic tissue)
 Digestion in the Small Intestine
 Enzymes from the brush border
Break double sugars into simple sugars
Complete some protein digestion
 Pancreatic enzymes play the major
digestive function
Help complete digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase)
Carry out about half of all protein digestion
(trypsin, etc.)
 Digestion in the Small Intestine

 Pancreatic enzymes play the major

digestive function (continued)
Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
 Absorption in the Small Intestine
 Water is absorbed along the length of
the small intestine
 End products of digestion
Most substances are absorbed by active
transport through cell membranes
Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
 Substances are transported to the liver
by the hepatic portal vein or lymph
 Propulsion in the Small Intestine

 Peristalsis is the major means of moving

food
 Segmental movements
 Mix chyme with digestive juices
 Aid in propelling food
Large Intestine

 Larger in diameter, but shorter than the

small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen
Large Intestine
 Functions of the Large Intestine

 Absorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the
body as feces
 Does not participate in digestion of food
 Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant
 Structures of the Large Intestine

 Cecum – saclike first part of the large

intestine
 Appendix
Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
Hangs from the cecum
 Structures of the Large Intestine

 Colon
Ascending
Transverse
Descending
S-shaped sigmoidal
 Rectum
 Anus – external body opening
Food Breakdown and Absorption in
the Large Intestine
 No digestive enzymes are produced
 Resident bacteria digest remaining
nutrients
Produce some vitamin K and B
Release gases
 Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via
feces
 Propulsion in the Large Intestine
 Sluggish peristalsis
 Mass movements
Slow, powerful movements
Occur three to four times per day
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes
a defecation reflex
Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
 Accessory Digestive Organs

 Salivary glands
 Teeth
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gall bladder
 Salivary Glands

 Saliva-producing glands
Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
 Saliva

 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids

Helps to form a food bolus
 Contains salivary amylase to begin
starch digestion
 Dissolves chemicals so they can be
tasted
 Teeth

 The role is to masticate (chew) food

 Humans have two sets of teeth
Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
20 teeth are fully formed by age two
 Teeth

 Permanent teeth
Replace deciduous teeth beginning
between the ages of 6 to 12
A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do
not have wisdom teeth
 Classification of Teeth

 Incisors
 Canines
 Premolars
 Molars
Classification of Teeth
 Regions of a Tooth
 Crown – exposed
part
Outer enamel
Dentin
Pulp cavity
 Neck
Region in contact
with the gum
Connects crown to
root
 Regions of a Tooth

 Root
Periodontal
membrane
attached to the
bone
Root canal
carrying blood
vessels and nerves
 Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories of food
 Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme
 Endocrine products of pancreas
Insulin
Glucagons
 Liver
 Largest gland in the body
 Located on the right side of the body
under the diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from
the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
the falciform ligament
 Connected to the gall bladder via the
common hepatic duct
Bile
 Produced by cells in the liver
 Composition
 Bile salts
 Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
 Electrolytes
 Role of the Liver in Metabolism

 Several roles in digestion

 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
 Degrades hormones
 Produce cholesterol, blood proteins
(albumin and clotting proteins)
 Plays a central role in metabolism
Gall Bladder

 Sac found in hollow fossa of liver

 Stores bile from the liver by way of the
cystic duct
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in
the presence of fatty food
 Gallstones can cause blockages
Processes of the Digestive System

 Ingestion – getting food into the mouth

 Propulsion – moving foods from one
region of the digestive system to
another
Processes of the Digestive System

 Peristalsis – alternating
waves of contraction
 Segmentation – moving
materials back and forth
to aid in mixing
Processes of the Digestive System

 Mechanical digestion
Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
Churning of food in the stomach
Segmentation in the small intestine
Processes of the Digestive System
 Chemical Digestion
oEnzymes break down food molecules into
their building blocks
Each major food group uses different
enzymes
oCarbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
oProteins are broken to amino acids
oFats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
Processes of the Digestive System

 Absorption
End products of digestion are absorbed in
the blood or lymph
Food must enter mucosal cells and then
into blood or lymph capillaries
 Defecation
Elimination of indigestible substances as
feces
Processes of the Digestive System
 Control of Digestive Activity

 Mostly controlled by reflexes via the

parasympathetic division
 Chemical and mechanical receptors are
located in organ walls that trigger
reflexes
 Control of Digestive Activity

 Stimuli include:
Stretch of the organ
pH of the contents
Presence of breakdown products
 Reflexes include:
Activation or inhibition of glandular
secretions
Smooth muscle activity
Nutrition - Take a Class!
 Nutrient – substance used by the
body for growth, maintenance, and
repair
 Categories of nutrients
 Carbohydrates: simple sugars, starches,
fiber
 Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, fatty
acids
 Proteins: amino acids
 Vitamins
 Mineral and Water
 Body Energy Balance

 Energy intake = total energy output

(heat + work + energy storage)
Energy intake is liberated during food
oxidation
Energy output
oHeat is usually about 60%
oStorage energy is in the form of fat or
glycogen