Chapter 3

PERPETUATIO
N OF LIFE
 PLANT
REPRODUCTION
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Explain the different ways on how plants
reproduce
Differentiate sexual reproduction from
asexual reproduction
Learn the advantage and disadvantage
of both types of reproduction
 Reproduction

Reproduction is the process by which all living

organisms produce one of their kinds to
ensure the survival of the species.
0
 A flower that has all four sets of organs is said to be complete, and
one that lacks one of these organs is described as incomplete.

The pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary. The
stamen has the anther and the filament.
 FLOWER
IN FLOWERING PLANTS, SEX CELLS ARE
PRODUCED IN CERTAIN FLORAL ORGANS.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN IS CALLED
THE STAMEN WHICH HAS TWO PARTS: THE
ANTHER (PRODUCES THE POLLEN, WHICH
CONTAINS THE MALE SPERM CELLS) AND THE
FILAMENT (THAT HOLDS OR SUPPORTS THE
ANTHER)
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN IS
PISTIL. THE OVULES ARE EQUIVALENT TO THE
POLLEN GRAINS OF THE MALE
REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN. OTHER PARTS OF
PISTIL (STIGMA, STYLE, OVARY AND THE
OVULE)
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
SELF-FERTILIZATION/SELF-POLLINATION
OCCURS IN BISEXUAL ORGANISMS,INCLUDING MOST
FLOWERING PLANTS,NUMEROUS PROTOZOANS, AND
MANY INVERTRBRATES.THE MECHANISM IS OBSERVED
MOST OFTEN IN SOME LEGUMES SUCH AS PEANUTS.IN
OTHER LEGUMES LIKE SOYBEANS, THE FLOWERS OPEN
AND REMAIN RECEPTIVE TO INSECT CROSS POLINATION
DURING THE DAY;IF THIS NOT ACCOMPLISHED,THE
FLOWER MAY SELF-POLLINATED AS THEY ARE
CLOSING.OTHER PLANTS THAT CAN SELF-POLLINATED
ARE ORCHIDS,PEAS,SUNFLOWERS,TRIDAX,ETC.
CROSS-FERTILIZATION
OCCUR BETWEEN MEMBERS OF THE SAME SPECIES,FOR
EXAMPLE,IT IS IMPOSIBLE TO CREATE A HYBRID OF A CUCUMBER
AND A ZUCCHINI AS THEY SEPARATE SPECIES WITH IN THE SAME
FAMILY,HOWEVER,IT WOULD BE POSIBLE TO CROSS A ZUCCHINI
WITH ANOTHER SQUASH,LIKE PUMKIN AS THEY BELONG TO THE
SAME SPECIES.CROSS-FERTILIZATIO ON PLANTS WHERE THE
INSECTS ARE THE AGENTS
(APPLES,PLUMS,PEARS,RASPBERRIES,BLACKBERRIES,BLACKCURR
ANTS,STRAWBERRIES,RUNNER
BEANS,PUMPKINS,DAFFODILS,TULIPS,HEATHER,LAVENDER,AND
ETC. CROSS-FERTILIZATIO ON PLANTS WHERE WIND IS THE MAIN
AGENT(GRASS,CATKINS,DANDELIONS,MAPLE TREES, AND GOAT’S
BEARD)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL (PARENT) IS CAPABLE OF
PRODUCING OFFSPRING,AS A RESULT, THE
OFFSPRING THAT ARE PRODUCED ARE NOT ONLY
IDENTICAL TO ONE ANOTHER BUT ARE ALSO
EXACT COPIES OF THEIR PARENT. ALL THESE
METHODS OF REPRODUCTION WORK
WELL.HOWEVER, THEY DO NOT MAKE IT
POSSIBLE FOR PLANTS TO MOVE TO NEW
LOCATIONS.IN ADDITION TO REPRODUCING
ASEXUALLY,MOST LAND PLANTS ALSO
REPRODUCE SEXUALLY.
D) ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
THE PROCESS OF PROPAGATING PLANTS THROUGH
ARTIFICIAL METHODS IS CALLED ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.THE
DIFFERENT METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION ARE
GRAFTING,CUTTING,LAYERING, AND TISSUE CULTURE

I. GRAFTING
THE METHOD WHICH INVOLVES DEVELOPMENT OF NEW
VARETIES OF FRUIT PLANTS.

II.CUTTING
INVOLVES PLANTING A YOUNG CUTTING OF THE STEM WITH
BUDS INTO MOIST SOIL.
F) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INVOLVES TWO FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES: MEIOSIS, WHICH REARRANGES THE GENES
AND REDUCES THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES, AND FERTILIZATION, WHICH RESTORES THE
CHROMOSOME TO A COMPLETE DIPLOID NUMBER. IN BETWEEN THESE TWO PROCESSES,
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANTS AND ALGAE VARY, BUT MANY OF THEM, INCLUDING ALL
LAND PLANTS, UNDERGO ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS, WITH TWO DIFFERENT MULTICELLULAR
STRUCTURES (PHASES), A GAMETOPHYTE AND A SPOROPHYTE.

I. CONIFEROUS TREES
A GROUP OF PLANTS CALLED GYMNOSPERM DEVELOPED WIND BORNE
POLLEN LIKE THE CYCADS, GINKOS AND NEEDLE-BEARING TREES SUCH AS PINES AND
REDWOODS.

II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF FLOWER

A NEW GROUP OF PLANTS, THE ANGIOSPERMS,APPEARED ABOUT 110
MILLION YEARS AGO. THESE PLANTS DEVELOPED A NUMBER OF STRUCTURAL
INNOVATIONS, THE MOST STRIKING OF WHICH IS THE FLOWER.
 ORGANS OF PLANTS
THE ORGANS OF PLANTS ARE DIVIDED INTO VEGETATIVE AND
REPRODUCTIVE .THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS ARE THE LEAVES,
STEM, AND ROOTS. THE LEAVES TAKE CARE FOR FOOD
MANUFACTURE AND TRANSPIRATION. THE STEM SUPPORTS THE
LEAVE AND PARTS OF THE PLANT. THE ROOTS ABSORB WATER
AND MINERALS AND ANCHOR THE PLANT TO THE SOIL.THE
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
PERPETUATION OF THE PLANT. THESE ARE THE FLOWERS, FRUIT
AND SEEDS.
I. FLOWER HAS TREE MAIN ORAGANS,NAMELY:ESSENTIAL
ORAGANS WHICH FUNCTION FOR ATTRACTION;AND THE
ACCESSORY ORGANS WHICH PERFORM FUNCTIONS LIKE SUPPORT
AND PROTECTION
 ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
Specific Learning Outcomes
•Identify the different ways how animals
reproduce.
•Differentiate sexual reproduction from
asexual reproduction.
•Learn the advantage and disadvantage of
both types of reproduction.
•Relate how animal reproduction impacts
ecosystem imbalance
Most animals are capable of complex
and relatively rapid movement
compared to plants and other
organisms. Most reproduce sexually, by
means of differentiated eggs and
sperm. Most animals are diploid,
meaning that the cells of
adults contain two copies of
the genetic material.
Like plants, animals need to reproduce in order to increase the chance
of the perpetuation of their species. But unlike plants, there is an
assumption that animals reproduced only through the process of
fertilization, or the fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell. Actually, like
plants, some animals also used asexual or sexual or both methods of
sexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction is the process of joining the haploid gametes (sex

cells) to form a diploid cell called a zygote. A zygote eventually becomes
an embryo and later on develops into an organism. The female gamete
is an egg cell, is usually non-motile, to ensure survival of the embryo by
storing energy. The male gamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to
search for the egg cell for fertilization. In asexual reproduction, fusion of
the egg cell and sperm cell does not occur; reproduction is mainly
through mitosis which creates a clone of the parent.
The Animals which give birth
to live offspring are called
live-bearing or
viviparous. The animals
which lay eggs are called
egg-laying or
oviparous.
Egg Laying
or
Oviparous
 Asexual
Reproduction
Parthenogenesis
Example of Parthenogenesis
 Budding
What is budding?
Budding is a type of asexual
reproduction. It is most
commonly associated with
bacteria and yeast, but some
animal species reproduce via
budding, too. A parent
organism creates a bud from
its own cells, which then
form the basis of the
offspring organism and
develop into an organism
resembling the parent.
 Fragmentation
What is Fragmentation?
Fragmentation is a form of asexual
reproduction where a new organism grows from a
fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops
into a fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen
in many organisms such as animals (some annelid
worms and sea stars), fungi, and plants.
 Binary Fission
What is a binary fission?
- Binary fission is the primary method of
reproduction of prokaryotic organisms. In
protists, binary fission is often differentiated into
types, such as transverse or longitudinal,
depending on the axis of cell separation.
- Asexual reproduction in free-living
species usually involves nuclear
division and the division of the cell
into two identical daughter cells of
equal size by binary fission.
 Example of
Binary Fission
 Sexual
Reproduction
Example of sequential hermaphroditism
How Genes
Work
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will
be able to:
•Describe the central dogma.
•Explain the process of replication.
•Explain the process of transcription.
•Explain the process of translation.
•Synthesize the implication of the central
dogma
 A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes a
unique protein that performs a specialized
function in the cell. It is a functional unit of
heredity. A gene is capable of storing
information and capable of self-replication and
can undergo mutations. It acts as instructions to
make molecules called proteins. In humans,
genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA
bases to more than 2 million bases. The Human
Genome Project has estimated that humans have
between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.
Every person has two copies of each gene, one
inherited from each parent. Most genes are the
same in all people, but a small number of genes
are slightly different between people. Alleles are
forms of the same gene with small differences in
their sequence of DNA
bases. These small
differences contribute
to each person’s unique
physical features
 THE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF DNA
• DNA means deoxyribonucleic acid
• Found within the nucleus of each cell
• Your DNA is like your thumbprint. No one else
in this world has exactly the same DNA as you.
• DNA holds the genetic information needed to
make and control all cellular activities within a
living organism.
• DNA has four bases: Adenine(A), Guanine(G),
Thymine(T) and Cytosine (C)
• A and G are double-ring structures called
purines; T and C are single-ring structures
called pyrimidines.
• The nucleotide is the building block of DNA
~It is made up of four bases , a five carbon
sugar deoxyribose, and a phosphate
group.
• Humans have 3 billion bases,
• The order or sequence of these bases
determine the information available for
building and maintaining an organism.
DNA are found in every cell of a person’s body.
It is mostly located in cell nucleus (Nuclear DNA)
but a small amount of DNA found in the
mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA/ mtDNA).
Each strand in
the double helix
can serve as a
pattern for the
duplicating the
sequence of bases.
 WATSON AND CRICK MODEL
In 1953, James Watson and Frances Crick
worked out that DNA is like a “double helix”.
The DNA is a double helix because of the two
strands which wind around each other. The
two sugar-phosphate backbones make up the
sides and the base pairs make up the rung or
steps of the winding staircase. The model
shows that paired nucelotide, which always
occur as A-T or G-C, are linked by hydrogen
bonds. This is called the complementary base
pairing.
 Why is DNA Important?
All the characteristics that you have are
affected by the DNA in your cells. It
controls the color of your eyes, hair,
complexion, height and many more.
These characteristics, are traits that can
be inherited. How traits appear in you
depends on the kind of proteins your
cells make. DNA stores the blueprints
for making proteins.
 What is RNA?
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. RNA is a long
strand made up of a building block called nucleotides.
RNA has a single chain and does not entwine in a
double helix.
DNA RNA
Function Stores genetic Involved in protein
information synthesis
Location Remains in the nucleus Leaves the nucleus
Structure Double helix Usually single strand
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Pyrimidines Cytosine, Thymine Cytosine, Uracil
Purines Adenine, Guanine Adenine, Guanine
 Here, the information from the DNA is
transcribed into an RNA which is later
translated into a protein.
•Replication: Creates two identical copies of
DNA. This process happens before cell division
to ensure that both the new and old cells have
a complete copy of DNA.
•Transcription: Copies DNA code into RNA
code. This process occurs when the cell needs
 The process of transcription involves various processes of
converting DNA segments into RNA, splicing of these segments
and joining in order to from an mRNA (or messenger RNA) which
will carry the message from the DNA to the ribosome for
translation of the message to a particular protein. With the help of
a tRNA or a transfer RNA in a ribosome, message carried by the
mRNA is translated to particular amino acid sequence which makes
a protein.
A codon or a sequence of three DNA or RNA nitrogenous base is
the information needed in the creation of an amino acid. The 20
amino acids in the biological systems are created through the
different information formed by the sequence of the base pairs,
below is a table which shows the different amino acids:
 Thus, a particular
DNA segment has
implication on the
particular protein
which a cell will
produce. A problem,
such as deletions,
insertions or
inversions in one or
more of the bases in
the DNA can
change the protein
that will be decoded
during translation.
The case of sickle
cell anemia is an
Example:

Transcribe the following DNA SEQUENCE to RNA sequence

1. TACGGCATA
2. GGATACGTA
3. TTGGCAAGCT
4. CAGTACGGA
5. TTACGGTAA
6. CATGCCATA
Biotechnology
 Biotechnology is a general term used to describe
the modification of biological processes through
human intervention.

This may be done through genetic engineering

aimed at improving traits of certain organisms. They
can choose and isolate a single gene for a desired
trait and transfer such gene from one organism to
another. The recipient becomes is called a GMO or a
transgenic organism.
 Genetic engineering is the process in which genetic material is
transferred from one organism to another. Artificial selection is the
most traditional form of genetic engineering, wherein specificity of
synthesis of target DNA sequence is less than current genetic
engineering technology. It has application on the pharmaceutical,
industrial, agricultural, medical and other industries. Below is an
example wherein genetic information from a firefly and a jellyfish for
bioluminescence is transferred to a tobacco and a pig. This has
application for medical technology, especially in tracking cell
activities.

Genetic information is transferred via a vector. A vector can be

bacteria, through its circular DNA called a plasmid, or a virus.
Above is a diagram of genetic transfer through the use of bacterial
plasmid. A specific target genetic segment is spliced into a bacterial
 Applications of Genetic Engineering

Scientists have explored ways of genetic modification to give

desirable characteristics of food crops. Through genetic engineering
we have produced plants that are:

1) Resistant to insecticides and to drought;

2) Fruits and vegetables with improved taste, texture, size and color;
and
3) Grains with improved protein contents. Among the GM foods
successfully produced include the tomato to improve taste, the
seedless watermelon, tomatoes and cantaloupes with modified
ripening characteristics, protein-enriched potatoes, and corn with
enriched lysine. Corn and cotton plants with resistance to insects
and other pests have been produced.
 Environmental benefits and Risks of GM crops

1) GM crops can help us conserve our natural resources. For example, GM crops resistant
to pets reduce the need to use pesticides will reduce harmful effects on water quality
which results to surface water being contaminated of leaching of pesticides residues.
Farmlands can again be made productive through pest-resistant GM crops. This could
also result in conservation of remaining forests and habitats.

2) Significant benefits include higher crop yields, increased farm profits, and reduced farm
cost and improvement in the environment.

Risks of Genetically Modified Crops

3) The main risk is the potential GM crops in mating or crossing with weeds, creating new
weeds, resulting in weediness or invasiveness of crop plants.

4) Another risk is the positive development of insect resistance.

5) The possible impact on nontarget organisms of the GM crops is another risk.