Course Title: Engineering Graphics

Teacher’s Name: Dr. Tariq Hussain

Head, Department of Technology Education

Institute of Education and Research
University of the Punjab
 Japanese Attitude for work
If one can do it, I can do it, if no one can do it,
I must do it

Middle Eastern Attitude for work

If one can do it, let him do it, If no one can do it
ya habibi, how can I do it?
History of Drawing Contd……

A Drawing is a graphic representation of real

thing. The art of drawing is as old as the
history of men. In the early times when
writing was not developed, men used to
describe his ideas by making rough sketches.
Man has developed drawing along two lines
according to his purpose:

Artistic and

Technical
Artists have used drawing to express
aesthetic, philosophic, or other abstract
Ideas. In ancient times nearly everybody was
illiterate, there was no printing no
newspaper or books as we know them today.
The books were hand-lettered on Papyrus or
Parchment. People learned by listening and
by looking at pictures or drawings in public
places.
Everybody could understand pictures and they were a
principal source of information. The other line along
which drawing has developed was the “Technical
drawing”. From the beginning of the recorded history,
man has used drawing to represent objects to be built
or constructed. The first written evidence of the use of
technical drawing was in 30 B.C.

In the 18th century Gaspard Monge developed the

principles of descriptive Geometry.
 Modern Technical Drawing
The first text on technical drawing was
published in 1849 by William Minifie in
Baltimore. In 1850 the Altender Family
organized the first drawing instrument
manufacturing company. During the
early part of the 20th century many books
on the subject were published, in which
the graphic language was analyzed and
explained in connection with its rapidly
changing engineering and industrial
applications.
 Definitions
Descriptive Geometry
Descriptive geometry is the grammar of
the graphic language, it is three-
dimensional geometry.

Mechanical Drawing
It is the term that should be applied only
to a drawing made with drawing
instruments. This term is also used for all
the drawing related to industrial
purposes.
Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing is the broad term widely

used to denote the graphic language. A
drawing worked out by an engineer having
engineering ideas for the engineering
purposes is called an engineering drawing.
Technical Drawing

A drawing which expresses technical

ideas is called technical drawing

Engineering Graphics

Engineering graphics is a term applied

to drawing for technical use and has
come to mean that part of technical
drawing which is concerned with the
graphical representation of design.
Technical sketching

Technical Sketching is the free hand

expression of the graphic language,
through it most technical ideas can be
expressed quickly and effectively without
the use of equipment.
OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING
Following are the most important objectives. Every
student should strive to attain:

1.Accuracy:-
No drawing is of maximum usefulness if
it is not accurate. A student should attain the
habit of accuracy in his or her work.
2.Speed:-
“Time is money” There is no demand for
the slow draftsman. However, speed is not
attained by hurrying ; it comes with study and
practice, and the fast worker is usually
mentally alert.
 OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING (continued….)

3. Legibility:-
The draftsman should remember that his or
her drawing is a means of communication to
others, and that it must be clear and legible
in order to serve its purpose well. Care
should be given in detail, specially to
lettering.
OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING (continued….)

4.Neatness:-
If a drawing is to be accurate and
legible, it must also be clean; therefore,
the student should constantly strive to
acquire the habit of neatness.
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
Drafting tools may be used for measurement and layout of
drawings.
 Drawing Board or Drafting Board
T-Square
Set-Square
Ruler
Compass
Divider
Pencil
French curves
 DRAWING BOARDS
If the left edge of the drafting table has a true straight
and if the surface of the table is smooth then a drawing
board is unnecessary, drafting tape is used to fasten the
drawings. It is also recommended that a backing sheet
of heavy paper be placed between the drawing and
drawing board. However, in most cases a drawing board
will be needed. These vary from

9 inches by 12 inches up to 48 inches by 72 inches or

larger.
The recommended size for students is 20 inches by

24 inches. Drawing boards have been made of

softwood so that thumbtack can easily pushed

down. The left-hand edge of the board is called the

Working Edge, because the T-Square head slides

against it. This edge must be straight.

 T-SQUARE
• The T-Square is composed of a long strip called the

Blade fastened at right angle to a shorter piece

called the Head. The upper edge of the blade and

the inner edge of the head are working edges and

must be straight. Do not use the T-square to drive

tacks into the board or for any rough purposes

 GRADES OF PENCILS
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with clay
added in different amounts to make eighteen grades
from 9H (the hardest) to 7B (the softest).the smaller
diameter lead pencils are used for the harder grade
while larger diameter lead pencils are used for softer
grades. The degree of hardness in wooden pencil can
be roughly judged by a comparison of the diameters
of lead.
 9H,8H,7H,6H,5H,4H, 3H,2H,H,F,HB,B, 2B,3B,4B,5B,6B,7B
HARD MEDIUM
SOFT

Hardness Increases __________ Softness

Increases
• The harder grade pencils are used where extreme
accuracy is required e.g. graphical work, charts and
diagrams.

• Medium grades are used for general purpose in

technical drawing, sketching,lettering, arrowheads and
free hand work.

• Soft grades pencils are too soft to be useful in

mechanical drafting e.g. rough lines and art work.
 SCALES

• Scales are used for measuring the lengths or

distances on the drawings with various divisions

for use in different engineering drawings because

the accuracy of the drawing depends upon the

proper use of scales.

 REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F)

The ratio of the drawing to the object is

called representative fraction. It is denoted by R.F.

Length of an object in the drawing

R.F = ______________________________
Actual length of the object
 TYPES OF SCALES

Scales are made in a variety of types to meet the

requirement of different kinds of work. For

convenience, scales are classified according to
their uses.

1-Mechanical Engineer’s Scale

2-Civil Engineer Scale

3-Architectural scale
 Mechanical Engineer’s Scale:-
• Mechanical Engineer’s Scale are used mostly for

drawings of machines parts and small structure

where the drawing size is never less than one-

eighth 1/8th the size of actual object.

These scales are used to draw the object on the

actual size, half size, quarter size or eighth size.

(1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8)

Example
to make a drawing of an object to a scale of

½ size we use the scale which is graduated so

that every ½ inch represent 1 inch. Same

as in quarter size scale ¼ inch represent 1

inch.
 2-Civil Engineer Scale:-
This scale is graduated in decimal system. It is

divided into 10,20,30,40 divisions to the inch.

On a 10-Scale, inch is divided into ten equal parts.

One part is generally considered to be equal to 1

foot.
On a 20-Scale, inch is divided into twenty equal

parts. One part is generally considered to be equal

to 1 foot.

These scales are most commonly used for drawing

maps.
 3-Architectural scale:-

Architectural scales are used for drawings of

buildings and other large structures. It is divided

in proportional feet and inches. These are available

in Full, Half, Quarter, Eighth………

1, ½, ¼, 1/8 …
Full size means that 1 foot=1 inch

(size is reduced twelve times)

Half size means that 1 foot= ½ inch

(size is reduced twenty four

times)

Quarter size means that 1 foot= ¼ inch

(size is reduced forty eight times)

 LINES

Each line in a drawing has a definite meaning and

is drawn in a certain way.

There are three widths of lines;

thin, medium and thick

All lines of the same type should be uniform

throughout the drawing.

 TYPES OF LINES
• Visible Line
• Hidden Line
• Section Lines
• Center Line
• Dimension Line
• Extension Line
• Cutting Plane Line
• Short Break line
• Long Break Line
• Leader Line
• Phantom Line
Visible Line:-
It is used to show the prominent edges of the
object. H grade pencil is used for this purpose.

Hidden Line:-
These are medium lines of short dashes to show
hidden detail of an object. H or 2H grade pencil is
used for this purpose
Section Lines:-
These are thin lines drawn at 45 degree and 1/8 to
1/16 inch apart from one another. These are used
to show the cutting surface of an object.3H grade
pencil is used to draw this line.

Center Line:-
These are thin lines of long and short length used
to show the center of circles and arcs. It starts and
ends with long dashes. 3H grade pencil is used to
draw this line.
Dimension Line:-
These are thin continuous line broken in the center
with arrowheads at the respective ends touching
the extension line. 3H or 4H grade pencil is used
for this purpose.

Extension Line:-
Extension lines are perpendicular to dimension line
touching the arrowheads. These are thin lines and
drawn with 3H or 4H grade pencil.
Cutting Plane Line:-
These are thick chain lines. This line is series of
one long and two small dashes. This line is used to
indicate where section must be removed to show
the hidden details. It is drawn with H grade pencil.

Short Break line:-

These are thick, free hand irregular line used when
the length of object is greater than its width and
we have to minimize the length of an object. H
grade pencil is used to draw this line.
• Long Break Line:-
These are used for breaking wide as well as long
object. This is thin line drawn with 2H or 3H grade
pencil.
• Phantom Line:-
This type of line is used to show the alternate
position of moving parts. It is consist of two small
and one long dash. These are thin lines drawn with
2H or 3H grade pencil.
• Leader Line:-
This is thin continuous line leading from a dimension
value or an explanatory note to the feature of the
drawing. It has an arrowhead at its one end touching
the feature in which the attention is directed. It is
 LETTERING
Lettering is very important in engineering

graphics to gives information about size and

surface. Free hand lettering should be done in the

drawing whenever needed because it takes less

time.
 Types of Lettering
There are so many types and styles of

lettering but following types are mostly used in

engineering graphics.

Single Stroke Lettering

Double Stroke Lettering

 Single Stroke Lettering:-
Single stroke letters are generally used in all the

technical drawings. The term single stroke does not

mean that entire letter is made without lifting the pencil

or pen, but the width of the stroke of the pencil is the

width of the stem of the letter. Single stroke lettering is

done either vertical or inclined style, for both capital and

 Double Stroke or Gothic Lettering:-

These are written with two strokes and both

lines are parallel to each other. They are drawn in

skeleton form, and then filled in with inking pen.

 Principles of Lettering
Following principles of lettering should be
adopted;

Only one style should be used throughout a

drawing.

Uniformity is essential in height, proportion,

inclination, strength of line, spacing of letters and
spacing of words ensure a pleasing appearance.
Move pencil freely but with great care,
lettering should be done with H grade pencil.

Lettering should not be underlined except

when special emphasis is required.

An inclination of approximately 75 degree to

the horizontal is recommended.
 Stability of Letters
If the upper portion of certain letters and numerals

are equal in width to the lower portion, the

characters appear top-heavy. To correct this, the

upper portion is reduced in size.

C G B E K X Z 3 8 5 2
 If the central horizontal stroke of the letter

B ,E, F, H are placed at exact mid height, they will

be appeared to be below center. To overcome this

problem these strokes should be drawn slightly

above the center.

B E
 Guide Lines for Capitals
Capital letters have two horizontal guide
lines. The upper most line is called Capline and
the lower most line is called Base line. On
drawings, capital letters are made in different
height, with the equal space between lines of
lettering. Guide lines for inclined capital letters are
same as for vertical capital lettering
 Guide Lines for Lower Case letters

Lower case letters have four horizontal guide

lines, called the capline, waist line, base line and

drop line. Stroke of letters that extend up to the

capline are called Ascenders, and those that

extend down to the drop line called Descenders.

 There are only five descenders g, j, p, q, y
so, the drop line is little needed and is usually
omitted. The height of letters may vary as
required. It is necessary to set off equal spaces.

e.g. to set off guide line for letters 3/16 inch

high it is necessary to set off equal space of each
1/16 inch.
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Many of the constructions used in technical

drawing are based upon plane geometry. Students

must familiar with the knowledge of elementary

geometry, without clear understanding of methods

and principles of plane and solid geometry; it will

not be possible to achieve desired knowledge in

Plane: A plane is a flat surface having length and

breadth but no thickness e.g. cicle, triangle,

polygon etc.

Plane Geometry: It is a science of drawing

figures on plane surface which have no thickness

are called two dimensional figures e.g.
construction of circle, triangle etc
Point: A point is represented by the intersection of

two lines. Never represent a point by a simple dot

on the paper.

Straight Line: The shortest distance between two

points.
 Angle:

An angle is formed by two intersecting lines;

a common symbol for angle is .There

are 360 degrees in a full circle.

 Different kinds of angles are given here
Right Angle: When a vertical line joins the

horizontal line in such a way that they form 90

degree angle is called right angle.
Acute angle: It is an angle less than 90 degree.

Obtuse Angle: The angle which is more than 90

degree.
Reflex Angle: It is an angle more than 180 degree

and less than 360 degree is called Reflex Angle.

Straight Angle: The angle of 180 degree is called
straight angle.

Complementary Angles: Two angles are

complementary if their total is 90 degree.

Supplementary Angles: Two angles are

supplementary if their total is 180 degree.
 TRIANGLES
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three

straight sides and sum of the interior angles is

always 180 degree. They have six elements three

lines and three angles. Any side may be considered

as base.
 Triangles by considering the sides

Equivalent Triangle: The triangle having three

equal sides.

Isosceles Triangle: The triangle having two equal

sides.

Scalene Triangle: The triangle having three

unequal sides.
 Triangles by considering the angles

Acute Angle Triangle: The triangle having three

acute angles.

Obtuse Angle Triangle: The triangle having one

obtuse angle.

Right Angle Triangle: The triangle having one

right angle.
 CIRCLE

A circle is a closed curve all points of which

are the same distance from the center.

Following are the terms used in circle.

Circumference: The distance around the circle.

Diameter: Any straight line passing through the

center of circle and touching the circumference at
any two points.

Radius: Any straight line started from the center

of a circle and touching the circumference at any
point. It is half of the diameter.
Chord: It is a straight line joining any two points
on the circumference.

Tangent: It is a straight line touching the

circumference at one point.

Segment: It is bounded by a chord and the part of

circumference.
Sector: It is bounded by two radius lines.

Concentric Circle: Two or more than two circles

having common center but radii are different.

Eccentric Circle: Two or more than two circles

which are bounded by one another but are drawn
from different centers.
 Inscribed Figures

In Inscribed figures the sides of the figures are

chords of the circle. Only the corners of figure

are touching the circumference of the circle.

 Circumscribed Figures

In the circumscribed figure, the sides of figure

are

tangents to the circle.

 Polygon
A polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight

lines. If the

polygon has equal angles and equal sides it is

called regular
 Polygons are named according to the number of sides, as follows
Triangle =3 sides
Square =4 sides
Pentagon =5 sides
Hexagon =6 sides
Heptagon =7 sides
Octagon =8 sides
Nonagon =9 sides
 DIMENSIONING
To give all the measurements and information describing

the size and location of the object in the drawing is called

dimensioning.
A drawing of an object is prepared to define its shape and

specify its size. The dimensions given on the drawing may

not be necessarily those, which are used in making the
drawing but they should be those which are required for
manufacturing the job. The correct dimensioning requires
a systematic way in which the dimensions are written on
 Dimension Line and Extension Line

Dimension lines are thin lines broken in the center

and terminated with arrowheads at respective ends
touching the extension lines. Extension lines are
drawn perpendicular to the dimension line and at
1/8 inch gap from the view.
 Leaders and Arrowheads
Leaders: A leader is thin continuous line leading from

dimension value or an explanatory note to the feature of

the drawing to which it applies. It has an arrowhead at
its one end touching the feature in which the attention
is directed.

Arrowheads: Arrowheads should be uniform in size and

style throughout the drawing. Arrowheads should be

drawn free hand and the length and width should be in
 Types of Dimensions
Size Dimension: It deals with the size of the

object e.g. a cone of 3 inch base and 6 inch height

is dimensioned.

Location Dimension: These dimensions show the

relative positions of different shapes

 Some Important Points
Larger dimensions should be placed outside the
smaller dimensions.

Dimensions are placed at the center of dimension

lines.

The dimension line, which is nearest the outline,

should be 3/8 inch from it.

Angular dimensions should be expressed in

degrees.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Projection
Projection is the process of causing an image to
be formed by rays of sight emerging from an
object taken in a particular direction from the
object to a picture plane.
 Projections

Perspective Projection Parallel Projection

Oblique Projection

Orthographic
Projection
Perspective Projection

When the observer is relatively close to the object

and projectors form a cone of projectors, the resulting
projection is known as a perspective projection.
Perspective projection in not suitable for working
drawings because a perspective view does not reveal,
exact size and shape.
Parallel Projection

If the observer’s eye is imagined as infinitely distant

from the object and plane of projection, the projection

will be parallel projection.

Orthographic Projection

If the projectors, in addition to being parallel to each

other and perpendicular to the plane of projection, the

resulting view is called orthographic projection. In this

situation the observer is assumed at infinite distance.

The resulting view will be in the same shape and size.

Oblique Projection

If the projectors are parallel to each other but

oblique to the plane of projection, the resulting

view will be called oblique projection.

 Orthographic Projection
Ortho mean “straight” line and graphic means “drawn”.
So, the word orthographic means something drawn in straight or
right angle. Projection is a Latin word having two ideas “pro”
mean “forward” and jection to “through”. So, the definition to
orthographic projection would be,

“The method of representing the exact form of an object in two

or more views on planes generally at right angel to each other.
Faces of the object

There are six main faces of the object namely,

front, back, left side, right side, top and bottom. The

larger horizontal dimension of object is generally

defined as the front side. Six views are not required, for

most objects three views are drawn front, top and side.
Plane

A plane is a flat surface with length and

breadth but no thickness. It is two dimensional

e.g., surface of white board, surface of wall,

surface of drawing sheet.

Plane of projection
Plane of projection is actually the picture plane
over which image of the object is formed.

Picture plan may be considered as the drawing

sheet and the image formed on the picture plane
is called view.
There are three planes of projection
1. Frontal plane.
2. Profile plane.
3. Horizontal plane.
Frontal plane
Any plane which is perpendicular to ground, this plane shows Length
and Height of the object. It always contains front view of the object.

Profile plane
Any vertical plane at right angle to frontal plane is called profile plane
which includes width and Height of the object. It contains side view of
an object.

Horizontal plane
A plane parallel to ground is called horizontal plane. It always contains
top view. It includes Length and width.
 Space Dimensions
Length
It is the perpendicular distance between two profile planes. It is
the Horizontal dimension of the object on the front.

Width
It is the perpendicular distance between two frontal planes of an
object.

Height
It is the perpendicular distance between two horizontal planes.
Angles System

For better understanding of an orthographic

projection the object is placed in quadrant (angle)

e.g., first and third angle depending upon the

important features of the object to be projected on

the picture plane (i.e., drawing sheet).

First Angle Projection System

When the object is placed in the first quadrant, the front elevations

is projected on frontal plane and the top view is projected on

horizontal plane. Front view is directly above the top view.

Whenever this situation is seen, we can say that the drawing is

made in First angle system.

Third Angle Projection System

When the object is placed in 3rd quadrant that is below the

horizontal plane and behind the frontal plane. Top view is

directly above the front view. When this situation is arises one

can say that drawing is made in 3rd angle projection system. This

quadrant is used because the views are in their natural position,

top view appears above the front vies as it is expected.

Principles of Orthographic Projection
When an attempt is made to prepare orthographic drawing, following principles must be
kept in mind.

Top and front views are in vertical line.

Front and side views are in horizontal line.

The length of top and front views is equal.

The height of side and front views are equal.

The width of the top and side views is equal.
A view projected from the above is top view and must be drawn

above the front view.

A view projected from the right must be drawn to the right side of

the front view.

A view projected from left must be drawn to the left of the front

view.
A view projected from the bottom of the object must be drawn

below the front view