OSI MODEL

Open Systems Interconnection

By
Dr. / Tarek Ahmed Wrshana
International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop an
architecture for computer communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the
reference model and associated standards.
The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.
OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data
from end to end through the network.
The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more
toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical communication medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances,
physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.

Physical Layer
Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.

Data Link Layer

Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.

Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).
The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.

Network Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between
two processes in different computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
Provides for the connection management.
Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.

Transport Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end
systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half
duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of some
sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last
checkpoint.

Session Layer
 Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged
between the two communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).

Presentation Layer
Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI
model.
Application layer contains management functions to support distributed
applications.
Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic mail,
remote login etc.

Application Layer
 OSI in Action

A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the
OSI layers to the bottom physical layer.
As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a
header to it.
A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what
functions the layer carried out.
Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the
message as it travels up the corresponding layers.
 TCP/IP MODEL
Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

OSI & TCP/IP Models

DoD Model
 Transmission Control Protocol TCP

Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)
Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
Transmission Control Protocol TCP
Internet Protocol IP
Internet Protocol IP
Internet Protocol IP
1 – SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol

Network Protocols
2 – FTP
File Transfer Protocol
3 – TFTP
Trivial File Transfer Protocol
4 – SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
5 – POP
Post Office Protocol
6 – IMAP
Internet Mail Access Protocol
7 – Telnet
Terminal Emulation
8 – ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol
9 – HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
10 – ARP
Address Resolution Protocol
11 – NTP
Network Time Protocol
12 – UDP
User datagram Protocol
PORTS and SOCKETS
 Physical Media

Physical Media
Copper
Coaxial Cable - Thick or Thin
Unshielded Twisted Pair - CAT 3,4,5,5e&6
Optical Fiber
Multimode
Singlemode
Wireless
Short Range
Medium Range (Line of Sight)
Satellite
 Physical Media

Copper Media: Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a copper-cored cable surrounded by a

heavy shielding and is used to connect computers in a
network.
Outer conductor shields the inner conductor from picking
up stray signal from the air.
High bandwidth but lossy channel.
Repeater is used to regenerate the weakened signals.
 Physical Media

Copper Media: Twisted Pair

Twisted-pair is a type of cabling that is used for

telephone communications and most modern Ethernet
networks.
A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The
pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk,
the noise generated by adjacent pairs.
There are two basic types, shielded twisted-pair (STP)
and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
Physical Media

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Physical Media

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Physical Media

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires

typically about 1 mm thick.
The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
Twisting reduces the interference between pairs of wires.
High bandwidth and High attenuation channel.
Flexible and cheap cable.
Category rating based on number of twists per inch and
the material used
CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, Enhanced CAT 5 and now CAT 6.
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP

UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number of twists in the wires, the
diameter of the wires and the material used in the wires.
Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone connections.
Category 5e and Category 6 are currently the most common Ethernet cables used.
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 3

Bandwidth 16 Mhz
11.5 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used in voice applications and 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 4

20 MHz Bandwidth
7.5 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used in 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 5

100 MHz Bandwidth

24.0 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used for high-speed data transmission
Used in 10BaseT (10 Mbps) Ethernet & Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 5e

150 MHz Bandwidth

24.0 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Transmits high-speed data
Used in Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 155
Mbps ATM
 Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 6

250 MHz Bandwidth

19.8 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Transmits high-speed data
Used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 10 Gig Ethernet (10000 Mbps)
 Physical Media

Fiber Media

Optical fibers use light to send information through the

optical medium.
It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the
signal.
Physical Media

Total Internal Reflection

 Physical Media

Fiber Media

Light travels through the optical media by the way of total internal reflection.
Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation.
Two types of Fiber media :
Multimode
Singlemode
Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than Singlemode Fiber.
Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one beam of light. It can support
Gbps data rates over > 100 Km without using repeaters.
 Physical Media

Single and Multimode Fiber

Single-mode fiber
Carries light pulses along single path
Uses Laser Light Source
Multimode fiber
Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at
different angles
 Physical Media

Fiber Media

The bandwidth of the fiber is limited due to the dispersion effect.

Distance Bandwidth product of a fiber is almost a constant.
Fiber optic cables consist of multiple fibers packed inside protective covering.
62.5/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
50/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
10 µm (1310 nm) single-mode fiber
 Physical Media

Fiber-Optic Cable

Contains one or several glass fibers at its

core
Surrounding the fibers is a layer called
cladding
Physical Media

Fiber Optic Cable

FO Cable may have 1 to over 1000 fibers

 Physical Media

Wireless Media

Very useful in difficult terrain where cable laying is not

possible.
Provides mobility to communication nodes.
Right of way and cable laying costs can be reduced.
Susceptible to rain, atmospheric variations and Objects in
transmission path.
 Physical Media

Wireless Media

Indoor : 10 – 50m : BlueTooth, WLAN

Short range Outdoor : 50 – 200m: WLAN
Mid Range Outdoor : 200m – 5 Km : GSM, CDMA, WLAN Point-to-Point, Wi-Max
Long Range Outdoor : 5 Km – 100 Km : Microwave Point-to-Point
Long Distance Communication : Across Continents : Satellite Communication
Physical Media

Frequency Bands
Physical Media

Wireless LAN

PC

Access Point

Internet Switch
Router

PC

Access Point
 Physical Media

Terrestrial Microwave

Microwaves do not follow the curvature of earth

Line-of-Sight transmission
Height allows the signal to travel farther
Two frequencies for two way communication
Repeater is used to increase the distance Hop-by-Hop
Physical Media

Satellite Communication