Seminar on RF Fundamentals December 2005

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. RF measurement units RF line transmission RF components characteristics Spectrum Analyzer basics S-parameter basics Antenna RF measurements Interference source detection
By lmcmcat Rev.A

1. RF measurement Units

The Bel
The Decibel represents a logarithmic relationship between two power levels. Derived from the Bel (in honor of Alexander Graham Bell) - the Decibel corresponds to 1/10 of a Bel The unit - one Bel at its origin - represents the power ratio of 10 to 1 between the intensity (power) of two sounds. A power ratio of (1:1) = 0 Bel ; (10:1) = 1 Bel ; (100:1) = 2 Bels and (1000:1) = 3 Bels...... The above shows the logarithmic relationship : the logarithm of 100 to the base 10 is 2 (corresponding to 2 Bels) etc... The exact relationship for an amplifier is given by the formula : Bel = log(P2/P1) P2/P1 represents the power ratio of the output power versus the input power. For an attenuator the formula is : Bel = log(P1/P2) P1/P2 represents the power ratio of the input power versus the output power.

The decibel
As the bel prooved to be a too large unit, so the decibel or dB, was adopted. 10 decibels make one bel thus the formula becomes : Decibels (dB) = 10 (P2/P1) dB atten = 10 log (P1/P2) dB gain = 10 log (P2/P1) Ri = RL ; P = U/R 20 log (U1/U2) 20 log (U2/U1)

An important value to remember : 10 log 2/1 = 3.01 dB thus a gain of 3dB doubles the power and an attenuation of 3dB halves the power.

Absolute dB Units
dBw dBw indicates dB referenced to 1.0 Watt. One Watt = zero dBw. dBm dBm indicates dB referenced to 1.0 milliwatt. One milliwatt = zero dBm. dBd dBd compares the gain of an antenna to the gain of a reference dipole antenna dBi dBi is a measurement that compares the gain of an antenna with respect to an isotropic radiator dBuV dBuV = decibel ratio of Volts to one microvolt

Electric field strength

Electric field strength is a quantitative expression of the intensity of an electric field at a particular location. The standard unit is the volt per meter (v/m or v m-1). A field strength of 1 v/m represents a potential difference of one volt between points separated by one meter. Any electrically charged object produces an electric field. This field has an effect on other charged objects in the vicinity. The field strength at a particular distance from an object is directly proportional to the electric charge, in coulombs, on that object. The field strength is inversely proportional to the distance from a charged object. The fieldstrength-vs-distance curve is a direct inverse function, and not an inverse-square function, because electric field strength is specified in terms of a linear displacement (per meter) rather than a surface area (per meter squared).

Electromagnetic field
Sometimes the strength of an electromagnetic field (EM field) is specified in terms of the intensity of its electric-field component.

This is done by engineers and scientists when talking about the radio-frequency field strength at a certain location arising from sources such as distant transmitters, celestial objects, high-tension utility lines, computer displays, or microwave ovens. In this context, electric field strength is usually specified in microvolts per meter (V/m or V m-1), nanovolts per meter (nV/m or nV m-1), or picovolts per meter (pV/m or pV m-1).

Radiated measurement Units

uV/m = microvolts per meter = Field Strength dBuV/m = decibel ratio referenced to a microvolt per meter = Field Strength AF = Antenna Factor = losses associated with the receive antenna CL = Cable Loss = signal loss within the transmission line/cable

dBm/dBuV Unit conversion

Conversions for 50 ohm systems 1. To convert dBm to dBuV add 107 dB: 2. To conver dBuV to dBm subtract 107 dB: dBuV = dBm + 107 dB dBm = dBuV - 107 dB

dBd to dBi conversion

To convert dBi to dBd Gain in dBd = gain in dBi - 2.15 dB Gain in dBi = gain in dBd + 2.15 dB

Return Loss
Return Loss - The ratio, in dB, of the power transmitted or forwarded (Pf ) into a load to the power reflected back (Pr) toward the source. Return Loss RL=10 log Pf/Pr or 10logPf/1mW-10logPr/1mW

Voltage Reflexion Coefficient

Is the reflection coefficient = Vreflected/Vincident

dBm-Volts-Watts Conversion 50-ohms System

2. RF line transmission

Votage Standing Wave Ratio

VSWR - (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio). The ratio of the maximum value of a standing wave to its minimum value, related to the return loss by the equation: R.L. = 20*log [(VSWR + 1)/(VSWR - 1)] Therefore, a VSWR of 1.5:1 corresponds to a return loss of 20*log(5) = 13.97 dB

VSWR = (1+ ) /( 1- ) When a source, a transmission line and a load are perfectly matched (i.e same impedance) both Voltage and Current are in phase and their RMS values are constant along the transmission line. The Reflection Coefficient is equal to zero and the VSWR is equal to one.

VSWR CHART

VSWR Conversion Chart

VSWR, Return & Transmission Loss Chart

VSWR/RL/CL CHART

Reflection coefficient

Transmission terms

Reflection and transmission measurement

3. RF components characteristics

Circulator or Isolator

Resistive Power Dividers/Combiners

Reactive Power Dividers/Combiners

Power Combiner Power rating

4. Spectrum Analyzer basics

Basic Spectrum Analyzer block diagram

Frequency Image rejection Selectivity

Prevents mixer overloading

Tracking Generator

Spectrum Analyzer Attenuator test

Understanding the distortion graph is important, but we can use a simple test to determine whether displayed distortion components are true input signals or internally generated signals.

Change the input attenuator: If the displayed value of the distortion components remains the same, the components are part of the input signal. If the displayed value changes, the distortion components are generated internally or are the sum of external and internally generated signals. We continue changing the attenuator until the displayed distortion does not change and then complete the measurement.

Sweep time and Span

Each of the 101 trace points (buckets) covers a 1 MHz frequency span and a 0.1 millisecond time span

Each bucket contains data from a span and time frame that is determined by these equations: Frequency: bucket width = span/(trace points - 1) Time: bucket width = sweep time/(trace points - 1) The sampling rates are different for various instruments, but greater accuracy is obtained from decreasing the span and/or increasing the sweep time since the number of samples per bucket will increase in either case. Even in analyzers with digital IFs, sample rates and interpolation behaviors are designed to be the equivalent of continuoustime processing.

Video filtering

Spectrum analyzers display signal plus noise

Display after full smoothing

Resolution Bandwidth, Phase Noise and dynamic range

Reducing resolution bandwidth improves dynamic range

Phase noise can limit third order intermodulation tests

Detectors
Trace point saved in memory is based on detector type algorithm Peak detection mode detects the highest level in each bucket, and is a good choice for analyzing sinusoids, but tends to over-respond to noise. It is the fastest detection mode. Sample detection mode displays the center point in each bucket, regardless of power. Sample detection is good for noise measurements, and accurately indicates the true randomness of noise. Sample detection, however, is inaccurate for measuring continuous wave (CW) signals with narrow resolution bandwidths Negative peak detection mode display the lowest power level in each bucket. This mode is good for AM or FM demodulation and distinguishes between random and impulse noise. Normal detection To provide a better visual display of random noise than peak and yet avoid the missed-signal problem of the sample mode, the normal detection mode (informally known as rosenfell9) is offered on many spectrum analyzers. Should the signal both rise and fall, as determined by the positive peak and negative peak detectors, then the algorithm classifies the signal as noise. Quasi-peak detectors (QPD) are used in EMI testing. QPD is a weighted form of peak detection. The measured value of the QPD drops as the repetition rate of the measured signal decreases. Thus, an impulsive signal with a given peak amplitude and a 10 Hz pulse repetition rate will have a lower quasi-peak value than a signal with the same peak amplitude but having a 1 kHz repetition rate. This signal weighting is accomplished by circuitry with specific charge,discharge, and display time constants defined by CISPR13.

Trace averaging

Video filtering

Trace averaging

Trace Averaging Digital displays offer another choice for smoothing the display: trace averaging. This is a completely different process than that performed using the average detector. In this case, averaging is accomplished over two or more sweeps on a point-by-point basis. At each display point, the new value is averaged in with the previously averaged data:

Third order intermodulation

Two-tone test setup

P(f1) = 0 dBm P(2f2-f1) = -50 dBm Intermodulation Ratio = P(f1) - P(2f2-f1) = 0 dB - (-50 dB) = 50 dB TOI = P(f1) +1/2(Intermodulation Ratio) = 0 dBm + 25 dB = 25 dBm

Two-tone, third-order intermodulation products

Pulse RF measurements Line Spectrum

PRF (pulse repetition frequency) PRI (pulse repetition interval, which is the reciprocal of PRF) Pulse width Duty cycle Peak and average Pulsed Power On/Off Ratio of the Modulator PRF = 50 kHz (the spacing between the spectral lines) PRI = 1/PRF = 20 microseconds Lobe Width = 1MHz Mainlobe Power = -48 dBm Pulse width 1/(lobe width) = 1/1MHz=1us Duty Cycle=PRF/(lobe width) = 50kHz/(1MHz) = 0.05

"rule of thumb" to follow is that the RESOLUTION BW be less than 0.3 x PRF The spectrum analyzer measures the absolute power of each spectral component. To determine the peak pulse power in a line spectrum, a pulse desensitization factor (@ L) must be added to the measured mainlobe power. The desensitization factor is a function of the duty cycle and is represented by the following equation: @L = 20 log (duty cycle) For a duty cycle of 0.05, L = -26 dB. Hence the peak pulse power in above Figure is -22 dBm (-48 dBm +26 dB).

Pulse RF measurements Pulse Spectrum

An alternate method of measuring a pulsed RF signal is in the pulse spectrum mode. In a pulse spectrum, the individual spectra lines are not resolved. If the RESOLUTION BW of the analyzer is greater than 1.7 x PRF, then the pulsed RF signal is being viewed in the pulse spectrum. Using the pulse spectrum enables a wider resolution bandwidth to be used. Two benefits result from this: first, the signal-noise ratio is increased because the pulse amplitude increases linearly with the resolution bandwidth (RBW) whereas random noise increases only proportionally to the square-root of the video bandwidth (VBW)1/2

An additional factor to consider when measuring pulsed RF signals is the VIDEO FILTER control. In general, the VIDEO FILTER should be left in the OFF position when measuring pulsed RF signals. Adding video filtering will desensitize a pulsed signal and limit its displayed amplitude.

Reading Spectrum Analyzer Display

5. S-parameter basics S-

Time versus Frequency Domain

TDR/T and S-parameter Data

Network Analyzer S Parameters

Operator calibration

6. Antenna RF measurements

Antenna radiation patern

TMA with and without bypass

TMA filter effects

Antenna testing

Near field measurement

Antenna decoupling measurement

Measurement of the Tower-Mounted Amplifier (TMA) Gain

7. Interference source detection

Quickly identify Intermittent & Interfering Signals with Real-Time Spectrum Analysis