So there must be a frequency point between these two extremes of C 1 being open-circuited

and C2 being short-circuited where the output voltage, V OUT reaches its maximum value.
The frequency value of the input waveform at which this happens is called the oscillators
Resonant Frequency, (ƒr).
The above RC network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC forming
basically a High Pass Filter connected to a Low Pass Filter producing a very selective second-
order frequency dependent Band Pass Filter with a high Q factor at the selected frequency, ƒr.

At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high so acts a bit like an
open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin resulting in virtually no output signal, Vout.

Likewise, at high frequencies, the reactance of the parallel capacitor, (C2) becomes very low,
so this parallel connected capacitor acts a bit like a short circuit across the output, so again
there is no output signal.
Multiply (j) to equation 14.97 then equation will change
 In Oscilator circuits, Point D and B are at same point
because Of Wein Bridge circuit, hence potential at D
will be Vf

For calculation of minimum open loop gain (A)

 Crystal Oscillators
The principle of crystal oscillators depends upon the Piezo electric effect. The crystal
used in crystal oscillator exhibits a property called as Piezo electric property. So, let us
have an idea on piezo electric effect.

Piezo Electric Effect

The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied across one
of the faces of the crystal, a potential difference is developed across the opposite
faces of the crystal. Conversely, when a potential difference is applied across one of
the faces, a mechanical stress is produced along the other faces. This is known
as Piezo electric effect.

Certain crystalline materials like Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline exhibit piezo
electric effect and such materials are called as Piezo electric crystals. Quartz is the
most commonly used piezo electric crystal because it is inexpensive and readily
available in nature.
 Working of a Quartz Crystal
In order to make a crystal work in an electronic circuit, the crystal is placed
between two metal plates in the form of a capacitor. The ac voltage is applied in
parallel to the crystal. The circuit arrangement of a Quartz Crystal will be as
shown below −

If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the frequency of the

applied voltage. However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is made equal to
the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations
reach a maximum value. This natural frequency is almost constant.
 Equivalent circuit of a Crystal
If we try to represent the crystal with an equivalent electric circuit, we have to
consider two cases, i.e., when it vibrates and when it doesn’t. The figures below
represent the symbol and electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal respectively.

The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with a
capacitance Cm. When the crystal mounted across the AC source is not vibrating, it
is equivalent to the capacitance Cm. When the crystal vibrates, it acts like a tuned
R-L-C circuit.
 Frequency response
The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below. The graph shows the
reactance (XL or XC) versus frequency (f). It is evident that the crystal has two closely
spaced resonant frequencies.
The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which
occurs when reactance of the inductance (L) is equal to the
reactance of the capacitance C. In that case, the impedance
of the equivalent circuit is equal to the resistance R and the
frequency of oscillation (fs) is given by the relation,

The second one is the parallel resonant frequency (fp), which occurs when the reactance of R-L-C
branch is equal to the reactance of capacitor Cm. At this frequency, the crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit and the frequency of oscillation is given by the relation.

The value of Cm is usually very large as compared to C. Therefore, the value of CT is approximately equal to C and
hence the series resonant frequency is approximately equal to the parallel resonant frequency (i.e., f s = fp).
 Series-Resonant Circuits
To excite a crystal for operation in the series-resonant mode, it may be connected as a series
element in a feedback path. At the series-resonant frequency of the crystal, its impedance is
smallest and the amount of (positive) feedback is largest. A typical transistor circuit is shown in Fig.
14.33 . This is the circuit which is normally referred as a crystal oscillator circuit. The following circuit
diagram shows the arrangement of a transistor pierce crystal oscillator.

In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in the

feedback path from collector to the base. The resistors R1, R2
and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized d.c. bias circuit. The
capacitor CE provides a.c. bypass of the emitter resistor and RFC
(radio frequency choke) coil provides for d.c. bias while
decoupling any a.c. signal on the power lines from affecting the
output signal. The coupling capacitor C has negligible
impedance at the circuit operating frequency. But it blocks any
d.c. between collector and base.

The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant

frequency of the crystal and its value is given by the relation,
 Question on Oscillators

1. In the Hartley oscillator L2 = 0.4mH and C = .004µF. If the frequency of oscillation is 120kHz, find the value of L1. Neglect the value of
mutual inductance. Ans (.04mH).
2. In a transistorized Hartley oscillator, the two inductors are 2mH and 20µH, while frequency is to be changed from 950kHz to 2050kHz.
Calculate the range over which capacitor is to be varied. (2.98pF – 13.89pF)
3. In a Hartley oscillator, the value of capacitor in the tuned circuit is 500pF and the two section of coil have inductances 12µH and 38µH.
Find the frequency of oscillation and the feedback factor β. (1MHz, .316)
4. In a Hartley oscillator, L2 =15mH and C = 50pF. Calculate L1 for a frequency of 168kHz. The mutual inductance between L1 and L2 is
5µH. Also find the required feedback factor for the oscillation. (2.945mH, 0.196)

5. In the Colpitts oscillator, C1 = 0.2µF and C2 = 0.02µF. If the frequency of oscillation is10kHz, find the value of the inductor. Also find the
required feedback for oscillation. (13.932mH, 0.1)
6. A Colpitts oscillator is designed with C2 = 100pF and C1 = 7500pF. The inductance is variable. Determine the range of inductor the
frequency of oscillation is to vary between 950kHz to 2050kHz. (61µH-284µH)
7. In an RC phase shift oscillator, if R1 = R2 = R3 = 200kΩ and C1 = C2 = C3 = 100pF. Find the frequency of oscillation (3.248kHz)
8. In an RC phase shift oscillator, if its frequency of oscillation is 955Hz and R1 = R2 = R3 = 680kΩ, find the value of capacitor used.
(100pF)
9. In a Wien bridge oscillator, if the value of R is 100kΩ, and frequency of oscillation is 10kHz. Find the value of capacitor. (159pF)
10. The frequency sensitive arm of the Wien bridge oscillator uses C1 = C2 = 0.001µF and R1 = 10kΩ while R2 is kept variable. The
frequency is to be varied from 10kHz to 50kHz, by varying R2. Find the minimum and maximum value of R2. (1.013kΩ, 25.33kΩ)
11. A crystal has following parameters:- L = 0.4H, C = 0.085pF and Cm = 1pF with R = 5kΩ. find (i) Series resonant frequency (ii) Parallel
resonant frequency (iii) Q factor of coil. (856kHz, 899kHz, 430.27)
12. A crystal has L = 2H, C = 0.01pF, and R = 2kΩ. Its mounting capacitance is 2pF. calculate its series and parallel resonating frequency.
(1.125MHz, 1.128MHz)