TRANSFORMERS

Presented by
Dr. S.RAJENDRA PRASAD
1.TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
A transformer is a static device and its construction is simple as there are no moving
parts. The main parts of the transformer as shown in figure are
1) Magnetic core
2) Windings
3) Conservator tank
4) Transformer oil
5) Radiators
6) Bushings
7) Breather 8)Container
9) Buchnolz relay.
1. Magnetic core
•It is made of silicon steel or sheet steel with low reluctance.
•In addition to this, the sheets are laminated and are coated with an oxide layer to reduce
the iron losses.
•The thickness of lamination is 0.35mm for 60 Hz operation and 5mm for 25 Hz operation.
•core common part between the two windings. It helps both the wi-
ndings to link through the magnetic flux.
2. Windings
• A conventional transformer has two windings. The windings which receives the
electrical energy is called the primary winding and winding which delivers the electrical
energy to the load is known as secondary winding. The two windings are electrically
separated but magnetically coupled through magnetic core. The windings are usually
made of copper or aluminum with enamel coating.

•The low voltage winding carries high current so the wire diameter is more the high
voltage winding.
3. Conservator tank
•It is an oil tank provided on the transformer. It is also filled with oil and connected to the
transforms tank. The main tank is completely filled with oil.
When the is oil filled and self-cooled, the oil in the tank is subjected to heat and thus will
naturally expand or contract due to the variations in load current and is also subjected to
seasonal variations. The function of the conservator tank is to take up contraction and
expansion of oil without allowing it to come in contact with outside air.

4. Transformer oil
It is a mineral oil obtained by refining crude petroleum. It serves the following purposes.
i) Provides additional insulation
ii) Protects the paper from dirt and moisture.
iii) Carries away the heat generated in the core and coils i.e it is used for cooling
purpose.
5. Radiators
Radiators help in cooling the transformer oil by increasing the surface area. The number of
radiators required is independent on the capacity of the transformer and rate of cooling.
6. Bushings
The bushings are employed for insulating and bringing out terminals of the winding
from the container to the external circuit. Number of bushings is equal to number of phases.
These are generally of two types
i) Porcelain type which are used for voltage ratings up to 33 kV.
ii) Oil filled or condenser types which are used for voltage higher than 33 kV.
7. Breather
•Transformer oil should not be exposed directly to the atmosphere because it may absorb
moisture and dust from the environment and may loose its electrical properties in a very
short time. To avoid this problem a breather is provided on the top of the conservator.
•It mainly consists of a silica gel. The silica gel absorbs the moisture content of air so that
the oil contamination can be prevented.
•Colour of silica gel is blue at good condition and it becomes violet then pink as it absorbs
moisture.
8. Container
Cast iron or cast steel air lighted containers are provided with radiators. The
container contains the core windings and oil.
9. Buchholz relay
It is a relay, provided in between conservator task and transformer tank. It helps in
identify incipient faults. Its use for oil immersed transformers of rating less than 750kVA
is generally uneconomical.
2. E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary The sinusoidal flux ɸ produced
by the primary can be represented as

The instantaneous e.m.f. induced in the primary is

It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced e.m.f. in the primary is
 Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

For an ideal transformer;

(i) E1 = -V1 and E2 = V2 as there is no voltage drop in the windings.

(ii) there are no losses. Therefore, volt-amperes input to the primary are equal to the output volt-amperes
i.e.

Practical Transformer
(i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii)magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactances.
the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss in it. These two
losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron losses depend upon the supply frequency,
maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core etc.
3. IDEAL TRASFORMER PHASOR DIAGRAM

• The permeability of transformer core is assumed to be infinity. Excitation current

required to produce flux in the core is zero.
• Iron losses, resistance and magnetic leakage flux is completely zero.
• The magnetization curve of the transformer core is assumed to be linear.
3.1 Pratical Transformer under No-Load

+
3.2 Pratical Transformer under Load

Total primary current under loaded condition

N1Iµ = Primary mmf and the corresponding flux due to this MMF is Φ

V2= Secondary terminal voltage

I2= Secondary load current

N2I2= Load component of Secondary MMF

Φ2= load component of secondary flux

N1= Load component in primary MMF

Phasor diagram for Lagging Load Phasor diagram for Leading Load
Resistive load
Inductive load capacitive load
4.Equivalent circuit of transformer
4.1 Equivalent circuit of transformer when referred to primary side
Transfer of resistance from secondary side to primary side:

=
=

Transfer of reactance from secondary side to primary side:

P.U reactance drop of primary =
P.U reactance drop of secondary =
=
+
+
4.2 Equivalent circuit of transformer when referred to secondary side
Transfer of resistance from primary side to secondary side:

=
=

Transfer of reactance from primary side to secondary side:

=
5. LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

Transformer Losses
1) Copper losses 2) Iron losses

5.1 COPPER LOSSES

Total copper losses in transformer is
I R1  I R2
1
2 2
2

I1 is full load primary current is

VA rating of transformer

E1
I2 is full load secondary current is
VA rating of transformer

E2

Full load copper losses is

 I12 R01 (or) I 22R02

Copper losses at “X” of full load = X2 (Full load copper losses)

PU Full load copper losses = (full load cu losses)/(VA rating of

t/f) I12 R01

VA rating of transformer
PU resistance drop w.r.t primary is

I1 R01 I1
 X
E1 I1
I12 R01

E1 I1
 PU FULL LOAD CU LOSSES

Percentage resistance of Transformer = percentage full load

copper losses of Transformer
5.2 IRON LOSSES
a) HYSTERSIS LOSSES b) EDDY CURRENT LOSSES

A) HYSTERSIS LOSSES
• It is due to reversal of magnetization in transformer core whenever it is
subjected to alternating nature of magnetizing force.
WH ηBmax
x
fυ
η stenmetz coefficient
f frequency
x stenmetz exponent(1.5 to 2.5)
 volume of core
B) EDDY CURRENT LOSSES
Eddy current loss is basically I2R loss present in the core due to production of
eddy current in the core.

We KB2max f 2 t 2
 2

K
6
f frequency
t thickness of lamination
Bmax maximum flux density
5.3 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY EFFECT ON LOSSES

A) HYSTERSIS LOSSES
CASE 1:
V1/f = constant Bm=constant

Wh  f

Wh = Af
CASE 2:
V1/f  constant Bm  constant

Wh   V1/f x f 

Wh 
1.6 
 0.6V1/f x f 
WH α V1 f A V1 f 1.6 -0.6
(x 1.6)
CASE 3:
V1 = constant , f ,  Bm  (V1/ f)

Wh  f -0.6

Wh = Af -0.6

CASE 4:
f = constant, V1 

Bm  (V1 / f)

Wh  V11.6 = A V11.6
B) EDDY CURRENT LOSSES
CASE 1:
V1/f = constant Bm=constant

We  f 2

We = Bf 2

CASE 2:
V1/f  constant Bm  constant  (V1/f )

We  K V21/f 2 f 2 t2
We α V1
CASE 3:
V1 = constant , f ,  Bm  (V1/ f)
We α V12

CASE 4:
f = constant, V1 

Bm  (V1 / f)
2
We α V 1
6.VOLTAGE REGULATION

V11  V2
%V .R  1
and V11 E2
V1
Knowing the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to
primary/secondary
I1R 01 cos φ1 I1X 01 sin φ1
%Voltage Regulation  X 100
V1
I 2 R 02 cos φ 2 I 2 X 02 sin φ 2
 X 100
E2
"" sign for lagging p.f and "-" sign for leading p.f
7.EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
KVA RATING AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CONDITION
……………………(2)
8. ALL DAY EFFICIENCY
 DISTRIBUTION
BASIS OF DIFFERENCE POWER TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER
Type of network It is used in transmission It is used in the distribution
network of higher voltages network for lower voltages.
Availability of ratings 400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV , 66 kV, 11 Kv, 6.6 Kv, 3.3 Kv, 440
33 kV. V,230V
Maximum rating of usage Power transformers are used for Distribution transformers are
rating above 200 MVA used for rating less than 200
MVA
Size Larger in size as compared of Smaller in size
distribution transformers
Designed Efficiency Designed for maximum Designed for 50-70% efficiency
efficiency of 100%
Efficiency formula Efficiency is measured as the Here All Day Efficiency is
ratio of output to the input considered. It is the ratio of
power output in kilowatt hour (kWh)
or watt hour (Wh) to the input
in kWh or Wh of a transformer
over 24 hours.
Application Used in generating stations and Used in distribution stations,
transmission substations also for industrial and domestic
purposes
 Losses Copper and iron losses take Iron losses take place for 24
place throughout the day hours and copper losses are
based on load cycle
Load fluctuation In power transformer the load Load fluctuations are very high
fluctuations are very less
Operating condition Always operated at full load Operated at load less than full
load as load cycle fluctuates
Considering time It is independent of time It is time dependent
Flux density In power transformer flux As compared to power
density is higher transformer the flux density is
lower in distribution transformer
Designing of the core Designed to utilize the core for As compared to power
maximum and will operate near transformer the flux density is
to the saturation point of the B-H lower in distribution transformer
curve, which helps to bring
down the mass of core
Usage Used to step up and step down Used as an end user connectivity
voltages
Losses Copper and iron losses take Iron losses take place for 24
place throughout the day hours and copper losses are
based on load cycle
9.OC TEST AND SC TEST

IO
WO

VO
Parameters finding by conducting OC test:-
1) To find out constant losses(or) iron losses(or) core losses in
transformer.
2) To find the Ro, Xo, Io (5% of rated current), Iu and Iw

3) To separate the Wi(iron losses) to Wh(hystersis losses) and

We(eddy current losses)

CONDITION:-
4) Bm  (Vrated)/(frated)
5) Conduct on low voltage side is preferable.
i) To get rated V and F then low voltage is preferable.
ii) The range of voltmeter required is low range.
In OC test we used LPF Wattmeter
i) Power factor of load  0.5 then UPF Wattmeter
ii) Power factor of load  0.5 then LPF Wattmeter
cos O 0.2 to 0.25 lag  0.5
WO VO I O cos O
WO
CosO  , SinO  1  Cos 2O
VO I O
IW  I OCosO , I   I O SinO
V0 V0
R0  , X O 
IW I
RO  X O
SC TEST

WSC ISC

VSC
Parameters finding by conducting SC test:-
1) To find out variable losses(or) Cu losses in transformer.

V
Bm  f rated
applay
f rated
Bm    week flux  Iron loss is less due to week flux 

2) To find out series branch parameters( RO1/RO2, XO1/XO2)

3) To find %R, %X and %Z of transformer.
CONDITION:-
4) Apply rated current (ISC) and note down the values of VSC(5 to

8% of rated voltage) and WSC.

5) Conduct on high voltage side is preferable.
WSC FULL LOAD CU LOSSES
ISC
2
R O1 or  ISC
2
R O2
W
RO1  2SC
I SC
VSC
Z O1 
I SC
X O1  Z O21  RO21

FULL LOAD CU LOSSES WSC

%R  x100  x100
VA rating of transformer VA rating of T/F

VSC  I SC Z O1
VSC I SC Z O1
  PU Impedence drop of trnsformer
E1 E1

VSC
%Z  x100
E1
10. SUMPNERS TEST

W1 W2 I2
I1

V3
V1 V2
HEAT RUN TEST:-
•we run this test for certain period of time instaneously
temperature rise cannot be obtained.
Difficulty in sumperners test:-
•Two identical single phase transformer are needed.
Connection:-
•Two primary of the transformer should be connected in parallel
and excited from main supply source at rated voltage and
frequency (Similar to OC test).
•Secondary's of two transformer should be connected in series
subtractive polarity. This series combination should be supplied
from auxiliary source(Similar to SC test).
PROCEDURE:-
1. The DPST1 switch is closed and input voltage is adjusted until
the voltmeter indicates the rated value of LV winding of
transformer by means of variac 1
2. The secondary voltmeter (V3) reading is observed. If it’s greater
than zero volts, the secondary terminals of one of the
transformers must be reversed, such that V 3 reads zero.

3. After noting down the readings of ammeter A 1, voltmeter V1 and

Wattmeter W1, the DPST switches 2 & 3 are closed.

4. The readings of ammeter A2, Voltmeter V2 and Wattmeter W2 are

noted after adjusting the voltage which circulates the rated
Voltmeter(V1) = VO Voltmeter(V2) = 2Vsc

Ammeter(I1) = 2IO Ammeter(I2) = Isc

Wattmeter(W1) = 2Wi Wattmeter(W2) = 2Wcu

W1
Iron loss of each T/F  Wi
2
W2
full load cu losses of each T/F  Wcu
2
X KVA RATING cos
η x100
X KVA RATING cos  X Wcu  Wi
2
11.SEPARATION OF CORE LOSSES IN SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
•In order to separate iron losses into hysteresis and eddy current
losses, OC test should be conducted with variable voltage and
frequency.
V
such that Bm constant
f
Wh  f , We  f 2
Wi Af  Bf 2
Wi
A  Bf
f
m tanφ slope of straight line B
Hystersis loss Af rated
Eddy current loss Bf rated
2
PROCEDURE
12.AUTO TRANSFORMER

V2 N2

V1  V2 N1  N 2
V2 N1  N 2V1 (N1-N2), (V1-V2)
V2 N2
K 
V1 N1

I1 N2
K 
I 2  I 1 N1  N 2
I1 N
K  2
I2 N1
V2 N2 I1
K  
V1 N1 I2
a) Part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary.
b) Transformation ratio of auto transformer is
LV
K 1
HV
% Tappings
c) The feasibility of auto transformer depends on the tapping
point.
N1:N2=3:1 then K=33.3% (Breaking point)
N1:N2>3:1 then K<33.3% (Auto T/F is not feasible)
N1:N2<3:1 then K>33.3% (Auto T/F is feasible)
d) In auto transformer power is not only transferred by induction
process but also by conduction process.
KVA induction V2 I 2  I1  V2 I 2  KI 2 
V2 I 2 1  K  V1 I1 1  K 
Input KVA V1I1
KVA induction 1 - K  x Input KVA

KVA conduction Input KVA - Input KVA(1 - K)

KVA conduction K x Input KVA 
e) The Cu losses in auto transformer is less than two winding
transformer weight of cu  Volume
 length x Area
 NI

weight of cu 
AT  N1  N 2 I1  N 2 I 2  I1 
 2N1I1  2N 2 I1
weight of cu 
TW  N1 I 1  N 2 I 2  2 N1 I 1

weight of cu 
AT

2N1I1  2N 2 I1
1  K
weight of cu 
TW 2 N1 I 1
weight of cu 
AT 1 - K weight of cu TW
f) Saving of cu AT WTW  WAT WTW  (1  K )WTW  KWTW

1
g)(KVA) AT  (KVA) TW
1 K

h) %Full load losses AT 1  K %Full load losses TW

i) % VOLTAGE DROP AT 1  K % VOLTAGE DROP TW

12.1 Advantages of Auto Transformer when compared to two
winding transformer
1) less volume of core required.
2) Insulation required is less due to only one winding is present.
3) Cu required is less.
4) Less coast, size and weight are less.
5) The performance indices of auto transformer is more(It means
Efficiency and voltage regulation is more).
 12.2 DISADVANTAGES OF AUTO TRANSFORMER
1) If fault occurs at primary side. It reflected to secondary side.
2) Leakage flux is less then leakage reactance is less then %X is
less. So fault occurs may lead more short circuit current.
1
I SC 
%X

3) If any open circuit at common part then same voltage at

primary will appear at secondary of load. So load get damage.
4) Auto transformer not applicable for less than 33.33% of
tapping.
 12.3 APPLICATION OF AUTO TRANSFORMER
1) Auto transformer are used in 33KV/11KV Substation.
K=11/33=0.333=33.3% TAPPING
2) Auto transformer used as interconnected substation.
3) Auto transformer used as starter for 3-phase induction motor
to reduce starting current,
4) Auto transformer is used as voltage deliver at different voltage
to load is called as “voltage balance coil”.
 13. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER
13.1 ADVANTAGE
1) If any fault occurred on single unit, then entire load will be
distributed. So parallel operation of transformers gives more
reliable supply to load.
2) Increasing capacity beyond rating on single unit is difficult.
Therefore parallel operation enable us to expand the capacity
of the power system to meet the increase load demand from
time to time.
3) Power transformer gives maximum efficiency at full load. If
load on single unit is decreased then efficiency is also
decreased. In parallel operating transformer, if load is decreaed
Then we can switch off one transformer and remaining
transformer will operate with maximum efficiency. Therefore
overall efficiency of system is good.
4) Parallel operation can reduce the capacity and coast of stand by
transformer required in substation.
 13.2 NECESSARY CONDITIONS
1) Voltage ratings mention on the name plate of transformer to
be connected in parallel must be same.
2) The transformer must be connected in parallel with correct
polarity.
3) The phase sequence of three phase transformer to be
connected in parallel must be same.
4) Phase displacement angle between secondary's of both
transformer must be zero.
13.3 Desirable Condition for Satisfactory Parallel Operation
1) The voltage ratio of transformer to be connected in parallel
should be same to avoid circulating currents.
2) The two transformer should share the common load
proportional to their KVA ratings.
3) The X/R ratio of transformer to be connected in parallel
should be equal to avoid operation of transformer at different
power factor.
•Parallel operation of transformer:-
Case 1: With equal voltage ratio
Case 2: With unequal voltage ratio

Case 1: With equal voltage ratio