Course Objectives

The primary aim of this course is to introduce students to

the principle of research methods used most frequently by
business students. Basic knowledge of these methodological
approaches is absolutely critical to the comprehension of
academic understanding and comprehensive and critical
writing which is an essence of business students. Therefore,
the basic objective of this course is to provide knowledge
and understanding of basic principles of business research
methods.
 Course Description
The course has a preliminary focus on problem
identification, theoretical framework development
and hypothesis formulation. The course will then
deal with research design issues, measurement,
sampling, data collection and analysis. This
encompasses the overall understanding and
application of appropriate research techniques and
research statistics, and report writing and
Course Details Unit 1: Introduction LH 20
Meaning of research; Scientific research – features,; Types of
research: applied and basic; The scientific research process;
Approaches to research; Paradigm shifts – positivist Vs interpretivist
philosophies; Management research – concept, nature, and value in
business decision making; Applying scientific thinking to management
problems; Ethical concerns in research.
Qualitative research: Concept, Features, assumptions, Common
practices in qualitative research, Methods of qualitative research: Case
study, Ethnography, Grounded theory and phenomenological study(A
short introduction only), Building trustworthiness and credibility in
qualitative research, Strength of qualitative research.
Meaning of research
• Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge
and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and
creative way so as to generate new concepts,
methodologies and understandings. This could include
synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent
that it leads to new and creative outcomes.
Research = Re and search
Search again and again to find out something new absolutely or
by enriching the existing knowledge with the help of established
theories in a systematic and scientific way.
• F.N. Kerlinger- Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena.
• Kothari- Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment; the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solutions to a problem.
• It can be said that research is a systematic and organized study
and analysis of an issue that helps to solve the problem or develop
new theory or add new knowledge in the existing theories.
Common Nature and Features of Research
1. Objective
It must answer the research questions by formulating proper hypothesis.
2. Generalizability
Applicable in the population
3. Free from personal biases
Out of researcher personal perception and judgment and change the date to manipulate
result.
4. Systematic
Steps must be interrelated
5. Reproducible
Reliable, same result in same population by same methodology
6. Solution oriented
Probable solution of problem
7. Logical
Inductive and deductive
Types of Research
There are various types of research that are classified according to their
objective, depth of study, analyzed data, time required to study the
phenomenon and other factors.
According to its Purpose
Theoretical Research
• Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on
generating knowledge, regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection
is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular
field or to answer a theoretical research question.
• Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and
are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical
formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.
• For example, a philosophical dissertation, since the aim is to generate new
approaches from existing data without considering how its findings can be applied
or implemented in practice.
Applied Research
Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research
problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge,
and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and
medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

1. Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular
productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said
productive processes.
2. Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of research
design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviors useful to the goods
and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial
projects.
• For example, market research, because by examining
consumption patterns, strategies can be developed for the
development of new products and marketing campaigns,
etc.
• Note: Applied research is usually based on knowledge or
results obtained through theoretical research.
• In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish
the theoretical framework both to define the field of study
and to identify possible theories that could be tested or
applied to solve the specific problem posed in the project.
According to your Depth of Scope
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Explanatory Research
 Correlational Research

According to the Type of Data Used

 Qualitative Research
 Quantitative Research

According to the Type of Inference

 Deductive Investigation
 Inductive Research
According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out
 Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)
 Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous
Research)
According to The Sources of Information
 Primary Research
 Secondary research
Scientific Research
• Application of scientific method to the investigation of relationships
among natural phenomenon or to solve the problem.
• The scientific method is the means by which researches are able to
make conclusive statements about their studies with a minimum of
bias.
• F.N. Kerlinger “ Scientific research is a systematic, empirical and
critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationship
among the variables.
• Sekaran “Research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical,
scientific enquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken
with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it.
In conclusion
 Scientific research is a systematic investigation based on theoretical
background.
 It is step by step, logical, organized and critical investigation in identifying
the solutions of problems.
 It investigates pre hypothesized relationship between the variables.
 It presents research methodology as to how data are collected and what
statistical tool will be used.
 It is an interlinked exercise that requires sound experience and
knowledge.
Features of Scientific Research
1.Purposiveness : Definite purpose
2.Rigorous: Carefulness, thoroughness and the degree of exactitude
3.Testability: able to develop and test the hypothesis
4.Reliable: repeated similar outcome
5.Validity: results close to reality with certain level of confidence
6. Objectivity: based on actual data rather than subjective or emotional
7.Generalizability: findings have wide applicability
8.Parsimony: simple, logical and economical
9.Systematic, critical, empirical
Process of scientific research
In this context, ‘scientific’ does not necessarily mean ‘science’, but it
refers to a manner of doing research known as scientific research. It is
step-by-step, logical, organized and rigorous method to identify
problems, gather data, analyze and draw valid conclusions about the
data.

There are common eight steps in scientific research process:

1. Sensing or realizing the problem:

Actually the researcher is not familiar about the problems but senses
them in terms of what, why and how is happening. The researcher
form an idea about the situation or field in which the research work is
to be performed at the first stage of search.
2. Problem identification:
There may exists various problems under the selected environment and
the researcher try to select the vital problems upon which the research
work can be completed.
3. Theoretical framework:
Theoretical framework is the collection and integration of variables in a
formal linkage in relationship. This aims to identify the variables which are
going to incorporate in the research and analyze the relationship among
them. Framework is prepared on the basis of review of literature.
4. Hypothesis formulation:
Hypothesis formulation for the study is determined on the basis of
theoretical framework. It is a statement of assumption that predicts the
relationship between and among variables. It is proposed solution of
research question which may be accepted or rejected after test.
5. Research design:
It is a plan or blue print of research procedure to precede the entire research
process ahead. Following activities are designed:
a. Which research designed
b.Population defined(whole population and target population)
c. Sampling procedure and sample size
d.Data collection tools
e. Data analysis tools
f. Reliability and validity
6. Data collection:
It is also called fieldwork is the implementation of research design. Various
techniques of data collection like survey, experiment, observation etc can be
administered.
7. Data analysis:
It is the statistical analysis of collected, edited, coded and tabulate data. It
includes various tests like parametric and non-parametric to come to the
conclusions.
8. Interpretation and generalization:
• Interpretation is the process of explaining the numerical finding of research
in the sensible form.
• Generalization means to link the research findings with general situation.
Approaches to research
Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from
broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
There are three research approaches
a. Quantitative method
b. Qualitative method
c. Mixed method

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The
final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory,
methods, results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this
form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in
protections against bias, controlling for alternative or counterfactual explanations, and
being able to generalize and replicate the findings.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding
the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and
procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and
the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The
final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this
form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an
inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of
reporting the complexity of a situation.
Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative
and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that
may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core
assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative
data yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either the quantitative
 Paradigm shifts – positivist Vs interpretivist philosophies
A research paradigm is a philosophical framework that your research is based on. It offers a
pattern of beliefs and understandings from which the theories and practices of your research
project operate.
A research paradigm consists of ontology, epistemology, and research methodology.
• Ontology answers the question: “What is reality?” That is, does a single reality exist within
your research? An example of an ontological question would be: “Does God exist?” There are
two possible realities (or ontologies) in response to this question: “Yes, God exists,” or “No, God
does not exist.”
• Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It answers the question: “How is it possible to know
reality?” Epistemology incorporates the validity, parameters, and methods of acquiring
knowledge. An example of an epistemological question would be: “How is it possible to know
whether God exists or not?”
• Research Methodology answers the question: “How do we go about discovering the answer or
reality?” This includes the process of data collection and analysis. Research methodology
should outline how you conduct your research and demonstrate that the findings are valid.
Together, ontology and epistemology comprise research philosophy.
Research philosophy combined with research methodology comprises a
research paradigm.
There are two major paradigms are the positivist paradigm
commonly known as positivism and the interpretivism or
constructivist paradigm commonly known as interpretivism.

The scientific quantitative and the qualitative research method are

used while conducting business and management research. The
scientific quantitative research method reflects to positivist
paradigm and the qualitative research method reflects the
interpretivist paradigm
Positivism
Positivists believe that social scientist can and should use the same
methods and approaches to study the social world as “natural”
sciences such as biology and physics to investigate the physical
world. It means the research conducted considering to the natural
setting rather than perception and interpretation of the people is
known as positivism. Positivism paradigm interprets only phenomena
which we know through our senses like smell, light, happening, tasks
etc. positivism is associated with quantitative research. The main
elements of the positivist paradigm include:
 A positivism research is more objective rather than subjective statement.
 Value free contexts.
 The use of precise and objective measures usually associated with
quantitative data.
 Researcher remains separate from the subjects
 It believes in testing and experimenting to prove or disprove hypothesis.
 It helps to create new theory by putting facts together to generate laws or
principles
 Method include experimental studies, re-analysis of secondary data,
structured questionnaires and structured interviews.
 The implication of scientific research method with deductive reasoning.
Interpretivism
It is associated with qualitative research. It is used to obtain an understanding of an
individual perspective. Interpretive proposes that there are multiple realities, not only
realities of phenomena and these realities can differ across time and place. An
interpretivist research aims to see the world through the eyes of people being studied,
allowing them to put multiple perspectives of reality. The main elements of the
interpretivist paradigm are:
 A subjective world where people experience physical and social reality in different
ways.
 Researchers becomes fully involved with individual subjects.
 Flexible research process which flows from the materials provided by participations
 Method include ethnography, participant observation, focus groups decision, depth
interview and generally inductive reasoning is used.
The term “paradigm shift” was coined by the
American philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1922- 1996). It
is one of the central concepts in his hugely influential
work, "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,"
published in 1962.
Management research – concept, nature, and value in business decision making
• Management research refers to the act of study of various dimensions of
organizational problems and finding out the managerial tools or techniques so that
problems can be solved with the use of such ideas.
• Managerial research studies minutely, objectively, and scientifically on the problems
and suggests the management to improve in management procedure so as to solve the
management problems.
• It can be said that research that is conducted to solve the problem which is related to
planning, organizing, directing, and controlling is known as management research.
• According to Zikmund, “Management research is the systematic and objective process
of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.”

• From the analysis of the above definitions, we can say that management research is
such research that is conducted to identify and analyze the problem and develop
managerial tools to make decisions for solving managerial problems.
Nature of management research
Even though management research is also social science research but its problems and
issues are different than the issues related to other subjects. Thus, it is different than
other research. Those qualities that differentiate management research from other
research are given below:

1. Trans disciplinary: Management research draws knowledge combining the

information of various subjects. It means management research should consider
the varied nature of information and data from a large area of subjects like;
strategy, structure, environment, sociology, anthropology, etc.

2. Commercial advantages: management research is conducted to solve particular

problems of individual organizations. Thus, management research focuses on the
commercial advantages of a business organization.
 3. Practical: The findings found from the management research must
respond to the issue or problem of the business organizations.
Thus, it must be practically applicable.

4. Double hurdle: Management research has the problem of theory

and practice. Knowledge creation is made by academia and
research is governed by the world of practice. Thus, there is always a
hurdle of balancing them.
Value of management research in business decision making
The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces uncertainty and
explores opportunities by providing information that helps to improve the decision of
the business. Research provides supports in the following dimensions of decision
making:
1. Identify problems:
Business research helps to determine the nature of situations or identify the existence of
problems in the organization. It is used as a scanning tool to provide information related
to environment within an organization and its impact.

2. Diagnosing and assessing problems and opportunities:

After identifying the problems or potential opportunities, the researcher diagnoses
situations so as to clarify the situation. The manager should gain insight into the
underlying factors causing the situation. If there is a problem, they need to specify the
problems and causes. If an opportunity is found, they need to explore, clarity and refine
the nature of the opportunity.
3. Selecting the best course of action:
After the identification of problems and opportunities, research is often conducted to
obtain specific information that will aid in evaluating the alternatives and in selecting
the best course of action. For example: if a manufacturer wants to establish a
spinning mill in Butwal or Kathmandu then he/she needs to conduct research to
evaluated and select the best alternative. The course of action is evaluated through
the use of various performance criteria i.e market potential, cost factors, sales, etc.
objective information generated by research to forecast environmental occurrences
may be the foundation for selecting a particular course of action.

4. Implementing a course of action:

The best plan may also fail if it is not properly implemented. A manager can undertake the
research to find out the tactics to implement the course of action. Research provides real
information regarding the situation so that the manager can prepare various subsidiary plans
to implement a course of action.
5. Evaluating the course of action
Evaluation refers to the precise and objective measurement and appraisal of
the action whether it can achieve the goal of the project or program. After
the execution of the course of action research serves as a tool to inform
managers whether planned activities are properly executed and achieved
the results as expected. In other words, managers may use evaluation
research to provide feedback for evaluation and control of strategies and
tactics
Applying scientific thinking to management problems

• Scientific thinking is that mode of thinking about any scientific subject, content, or problem
in which the thinker improves the quality of his/her thinking by skillfully taking a change of
the structures inherent in thinking and imposing, the intellectual standard upon them.

• Various managerial problems required to be solved by the managers more concretely. The
market competitiveness is high, and the requirement of the customers are also frequently
changing. Thus, a manager requires analyzing the problems more scientifically and
systematically. Therefore, manager also started to follow scientific tenets while undertaking
research in various operational and functional problems like marketing, HR, operation, and
production.
1. Direct observation of phenomena:
Rather the collecting information from secondary sources managers
started to collect first-hand information through observation or interview.

2. Clearly defined variables, methods & procedures: Management

researchers used to define the dependent, independent moderating, and
intervening variables. Methods of measuring them and procedures of
undertaking the research are defined and operationalized.

3. Use of theories: Management researchers nowadays do not

undertake research based on observation/ thought but use basic thought
like ontology, epistemology, etc. It guides the researchers to undertake
research systematically.
4. Empirically testable hypothesis:
Nowadays, the researcher develops the hypothetic statement either based on
observation or previous studies/ theories. Those statements show the
relationship between various variables. Such statements are tested using
mathematical tools and confirm the relation/ reject the relationship of
variables.

5. Statistical justification of conclusions: Conclusions drawn from the

studies are drawn from the use of statistical tools. Statistically found findings
are compared or related to the previous theories/ study findings and
conclusions are drawn using researchers' logic and statistical findings. So,
management researcher justifies their conclusions using statistical tools.

6. Self-correcting process:
Managers develop systems that will automatically correct the deficiencies.
Elements of Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking includes the following elements:

• Point of View: a frame of reference, perspective, and orientation.
• Purpose: goals, objectives, and functions.
• Question or Issue: clear and precise vial question or problem.
Information: relevant data, facts evidence, observations, experiences, and
reasons.
• Interpretation and Inference: conclusions and solutions through proper
interpretation and inference.
• Concepts: theories, definitions, laws, principles, and models.
• Assumptions: Presuppositions and axioms (a rule or principle that people
may accept as true).
• Implications and Consequences: logical results.
According to Paul and Elder, Scientific thinking results in the
following elements:

• Clearly and precisely formulating vital questions and problems.

• Collecting and evaluating relevant data and information.
• Drawing well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, and testing them
against relevant criteria and standards.
• Thinking open-mindedly, recognizing and assessing assumptions,
implications, and practical consequences.
• Effectively communicating in proposing solutions to complex problems.
Ethical concerns in research

• Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research
designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain
code of conduct when collecting data from people.
• The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena,
studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in
other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research
involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to

 protect the rights of research participants
 enhance research validity
 maintain scientific integrity
There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues
can overlap with each other
Ethical issue Definition
Voluntary participation Your participants are free to opt in or out of the study at any point in time.

Informed consent Participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and funding behind the
study before they agree or decline to join.

Anonymity You don’t know the identities of the participants. Personally identifiable
data is not collected.
Confidentiality You know who the participants are but you keep that information hidden
from everyone else. You anonymize personally identifiable data so that it
can’t be linked to other data by anyone else.

Potential for harm Physical, social, psychological and all other types of harm are kept to an
absolute minimum.
Results communication You ensure your work is free of plagiarism or research misconduct, and
you accurately represent your results.
Qualitative Research

• A research that is concerned with subjective phenomena is known as qualitative

research. The main aim of qualitative research is to get depth knowledge and
explained the issue or subject rather than finding the solution or coming to
conclusions.
• Qualitative research is substantially used in the study of social science research.
Qualitative research collects data from the individual, organizations, books, and
other written documents, environment, media, and events. Qualitative research is
used in market segmentation, development of the concept of advertisement, new
product development, etc.
• Following tools may be used in qualitative research:
• Content analysis
• Comparative analysis
• Conversation analysis
• Grounded theory
• Discourse analysis, etc.
Features of Qualitative Research

1. Studying the meaning of people's lives, under real-world conditions:

Qualitative research first involves studying the meaning of people's lives under real-world
conditions. People will be performing in their everyday roles or have expressed
themselves through their own diaries, journals, writing, and even photography
independent of any research inquiry. Social interactions will occur with minimal
involvement by artificial research procedures, and people will be saying what they want to
say, not limited to responding to a researcher's pre-established questionnaire. People will
express their opinions independently. Qualitative research analyses their opinions so that
the results of research drawn is under the real-world situation.

2. Representing the views and perspectives of the people:

Qualitative research differs because of its ability to represent the views and perspectives
of the participants in a study. Capturing their perspectives may be a major purpose of a
qualitative study. Thus, the events and ideas emerging from qualitative research can
represent the meanings given to real-life events by the people who live them, not the
values, preconceptions, or meanings held by researchers.
3. Covering the contextual conditions within which people live:
Qualitative research covers contextual conditions-the social, institutional, and environmental conditions within which
people's lives take place. In many ways, these contextual conditions may strongly influence all human events.
4. Contributing insights into existing or emerging concepts that may help to explain human social
behavior:
Qualitative research is not just a diary of everyday life. Such a function would be an ordinary version of real-world
events. On the contrary, qualitative research is driven by a desire to explain these events, through existing or
emerging concepts. Qualitative research can be the occasion for developing new concepts. The concepts might
attempt to explain social processes used to provide potentially useful explanations and to form a platform for new
inquiries.
5. Striving to use multiple sources of evidence rather than relying on a single source alone:
Qualitative research strives to collect, integrate, and present data from a variety of sources of evidence as part of
any given study. The variety will likely follow to study a real-world setting and its participants. The complexity of the
field setting and the diversity of its participants are likely to warrant the use of interviews and observations and even
the inspection of documents and accidental effects that cause incorrect results.
Assumptions of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is undertaken based on certain assumptions. Those assumptions
are given below:
1. Interaction:
The key philosophical assumption of all types of qualitative research is that reality is
constructed by individuals interacting with their social worlds. It is assumed that
meaning is set based on people's experiences and this meaning is mediated through
the investigator's own perceptions. The key concern is understanding the
phenomenon of interest from the participants' perspectives, not the researchers.
2. Fieldwork:
0The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or institution (the field) to
observe or record behavior in the natural setting. Data collection methods include
interviews, observations, and documents.
3. Descriptive:
Qualitative research is descriptive in nature. The researcher is interested in the
process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. Typically, the
findings are in the form of themes, categories, typologies, concepts, tentative
hypotheses, or even theory. The product of qualitative research is richly descriptive,
Words and pictures are used to convey the results of the research rather than
numerical figures.
4. Inductive:
The process of qualitative research is inductive. The researcher builds abstracts,
concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details rather than testing existing theories.
Often qualitative studies are undertaken if there is a lack of theory or existing theory
fails to adequately explain the situation. There are, thus, no hypotheses to be deduced
from theory to guide the investigation. Qualitative researchers build theory from
observations and understandings gained from the field.
5. Multiple realities:
Social activities are not the outcomes of a single event but they are the outcomes
of interactions of various events and situations. So, qualitative research assumes
that all those social events are the outcomes of multiple realities.

6. Multiple perspectives:
It includes the voices of various informants whose situations are different. So, it
covers the multiple perspectives of multiple people. Thus, the findings of
qualitative research remain more realistic.

7. Verification:
It assumes that accuracy of information involves verifying the information with
informants or triangulating among different sources of information.
Common Practices in Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is different than quantitative research. Some of the common
practices used while conducting qualitative research are given below:
1. Flexible design:
Qualitative research uses flexible research rather than fixed research designs.
Qualitative research tries to strengthen a study's validity, selecting the samples to be
studied, and being concerned with generalizing. The qualitative researcher should
work more in the field and the situation of the field might be different than what we
expect previously, so researcher can change/ moderate the research design when it
is essential.
2. Field-based data:
Field-based data captures the contextual conditions as well as participants'
perspectives. The result is drawn from fieldwork and considering the diaries, journals,
writings, photographs, or other past works performed by the participants.
3. Use of non-numeric data:
Qualitative research analyses the subjective information obtained from interviews
focus group discussions, observations, etc. Analysis of such data can be made
using various computer software and other statistical and logical techniques..
4. Different interpretations:
Qualitative data may be in written and visual forms. Qualitative research relates
to the combination of orientations as well as methodological choices. Taking
advantage of the richness of the combination qualitative research can customize
its opportunities.
Methods of Qualitative Research
A qualitative approach is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative
research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative
research, the role of the researcher(s), the stags of research, and the method of
data analysis.

1. Case studies:
In a case study, the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon ('the case') bounded
by time and activity (e.g., a program, event, institution, or social group) and collects
detailed information through a variety of data sources. The case study is a descriptive
record of an individual's experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside observer. Case
studies are conducted to find out the solution to the problems of an organization but its
findings can not be generalized.
2. Ethnographic studies:

The ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely from the field of
anthropology. Originally, the idea of a culture was tied to the notion of ethnicity and
geographic location, but it has been broadened to include virtually any group or
organization. In ethnographic research, the researcher studies an intact cultural
group in a natural setting over a specific period of time. A cultural group can be any
group of individuals who share a common social experience, location, or other
social characteristics of interest. Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a
great variety of practitioners and methods. However, the most common
ethnographic approach is a participant observation as a part of field research.
Typically the ethnographer involves in the culture as an active participant and
records extensive field notes.
3. Phenomenological studies:
Phenomenology is considered a philosophical perspective as well as an
approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social
research disciplines including psychology, sociology, and social work.
Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's
subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the
phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others. In a
phenomenological study, human experiences are examined through the
detailed description of the people being studied. The goal is to understand
the 'live experience of the individuals. This approach studies over a small
group of people intensively for a long period of time.
4. Grounded theory:
Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that was originally developed by
Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s. The self-defined purpose of grounded theory is to
develop a theory about phenomena of interest. This is not just abstract theorizing,
instead, the theory needs to be grounded or rooted in observation -- hence the term
grounded is used Grounded theory is a complex iterative process. The research
begins with the raising of generative questions that help to guide the research but are
not intended to be either static or confining. As the researcher begins to gather data
and core theoretical concepts are identified. Tentative linkages are developed
between the theoretical core concepts and the data. This early phase of the research
tends to be very open and can take months. Later on the researcher is more engaged
in verification and summary. The effort tends to evolve toward one core category that
is central.
5. Field research:

Field research can also be considered either a broad approach to qualitative

research or a method of gathering qualitative data. The essential idea is that the
researcher goes into the field to observe the phenomenon in its natural state. As
such, it is probably most related to the method of participant observation. The
researcher typically takes extensive field notes that will be subsequently coded
and analyzed in a variety of ways so as to reach a conclusion.
Building Trustworthiness and Credibility into Qualitative Research
Three qualities are required for building the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative
research. They are given below:

1. Transparency:

The first quality for building trustworthiness and credibility is that qualitative research
should be done in a publicly accessible manner, The research procedures should be
transparent. This first quality means that you must describe your qualitative research
procedures so that other people can review and understand them. All data should be
available for inspection. The general idea is that others should be able to scrutinize
your work and the evidence used to support your findings and conclusions. The
scrutiny can result in criticism, support, or refinement. Moreover, any person, whether
a peer, a colleague, or a participant in your qualitative research studies, should be able
to undertake such examinations.
2. Methodicness:
Being methodic means following some orderly set research procedures and minimizing
careless work-whether a study is based on an explicitly defined research design or on a
more informal with more rigorous field routine. Being methodic also includes avoiding
unexplained bias or deliberate change in the natural settings in carrying out research.
Finally, being methodic also means bringing a sense of completeness to a research effort,
as well as cross-checking a study's procedures and data.
3. Adherence to Evidence:
A final quality is that qualitative research should be based on an explicit set of evidence. For many
studies where the goal is to have participants describe their own decision-making processes, the
evidence will consist of participants' actual language as well as the context in which the language
is expressed. In these situations, the language is valued as the representation of reality. Such a
function differs from situation to situation in which studies are dominantly concerned with
people's behavior. Under this latter circumstance, participants' words are viewed as "self-reports"
about their behavior.
Regardless of the kind of data being collected, a study's conclusions should be drawn in reference
to those data. If there are multiple perspectives, analysis should make sense from each
perspective and so test the evidence for consistency across different sources with deliberate
efforts made to seek out contrary cases to strengthen the findings even more.
Strengths of Qualitative Research
Generally, qualitative research is considered a subjective analysis and just helps to
explain the terms. But it has a number of strengths. they are given below.

1. Issues can be examined in detail and in-depth:

Any issues that is not clear yet, such issues will be taken by the researcher for his/her
study so that the issues will be defined clearly and factors that are responsible for such
issues will be developed.

2. Open interview:
Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/ redirected by the
researcher in real-time. In qualitative research, respondents can express their views
freely so that respondents' open ideas can be collected.

3. Flexible framework:
The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information comes.
As the situation or environment changes, the framework of research can be changed
and a new framework, as per the changing environment, can be implemented.
4. Capture human behavior:
The data based on human experience is more powerful and sometimes more
compelling than quantitative data. Human behavior can more effectively capture by
qualitative research than by quantitative research.
5. Finding the complexities:
Complexities about the research subjects or topics are discovered by the qualitative
researcher but are often missed by more quantitative studies. The quantitative
researcher only considers the seen facts but the qualitative researcher analyses to
the cause behind the scene. Thus, qualitative research can find the complexities of
human behavior.
6. Transferable:
Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals. So, the findings of
qualitative research cannot be generalized to a larger population. However, findings
can be transferred to another setting for further investigation.