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Structure of materials

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3 views43 pages

Structure of materials

Uploaded by

4delphinusFrila
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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STRUCTURE

OF MATERIALS
The make up of an atom
• The simple idea of an atom is that an atom has a
nucleus and negatively charged electrons
whirling around the nucleus.

• Within the nucleus, there are


protons (positively charged)
and neutrons (no charge)

• Electrostatic forces hold the


nucleus and the electrons together.
Three types of atomic
bonds:

• Covalent bonds
• Ionic bonds
• Metallic bonds
Covalent bonds
Known as primary bonding. A pair of
atoms are
Shared by two or more elements.
Ionic bonds
• Cations (+) and
anions (-) are
attracted
to each other in an
ionic bond.

• Electrons may be
transferred from one
atom to another in
ionisation.
Metallic bond
(+) Cations in a ‘sea’ of (-) electrons.

• The movement of these electrons makes


metals good conductors of heat and
electricity.
Amorphous material

• The material have no regular


arrangement of their molecules.
• Material like glass and paraffin are
example of amorphous material.
• These material have properties of solids.
• They have definite volume and shape
and diffuse slowly.
• Amorphous carbon
Crystalline material
• In a crystalline structure , the atoms are
arranged in three dimensional array called a
lattice.
• The lattice has a regular repeating configuration
in all direction.
polymorphism

• A crystal is defined as an orderly array of atoms


in space.
• Normally metals are made up of number of
crystals and each crystal consist of large number
of atoms.
• Crystal structure is atomic arrangement in solids.
• Polymorphism is the ability of solid material to
exist in more than one form or crystal structure.
Single atom Unit Cell lattice
Crystalline structures

• Body-centred cubic (BCC)


• Face-centred cubic (FCC)
• Close-packed hexagonal (CPH)
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)
Crystal Structure in
Metals

Examples:α-iron, Mo, W, V, Ta, Cr, Na,


K
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)
Crystal Structure in
Metals
Cubic)

In these structure, there are 8 corner atoms and


one atom at in the interior i.e. in the centre of
the unit cell with no atom on face.

Therefore,
Nav = average no. of atoms per unit cell.
Nc= total no. of corner atom in unit cell.
Nf= total no. of face atom in unit cell.
Ni = center or interior atom

Nc = 8, Nf=0, Ni=1

Nav= (Nc/8)+(Nf/2)+(Ni/1)
=(8/8)+(0/2)+(1/1)
=2
Slip in BCC and FCC
structures
As atoms in FCC are more closely packed than
BCC, slip will occur more easily. FCC metals
are
ductile and BCC metals are more brittle.
FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

In these structure, there are 8 corner atoms and


6 atoms at centre of the face and interior atom

Therefore,
Nav = average no. of atoms per unit cell.
Nc= total no. of corner atom in unit cell.
Nf= total no. of face atom in unit cell.
Ni = center or interior atom

Nc = 8, Nf=6, Ni=0

Nav= (Nc/8)+(Nf/2)+(Ni/1)
=(8/8)+(6/2)+(0/1)
=4
HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)
Crystal Structure in
Metals

Examples: Mg,Zn,Be,Cd,Co,Zr,Ti
HCP (Hexagonal Close
Packed)

• For hexagonal structure, the corner atoms are


shared by 6 cells (3 from below and 3 from
above), face atoms are shared by adjacent 2
cells, and atoms in the interior are shared by
only one cell.
• Nav= (Nc/6)+(Nf/2)+(Ni/1)
• For HCP structure , there are 12 corner
atoms, 2 atoms at the centers of the above two
faces and 3 atoms in the interior of the unit
cell.
HCP (Hexagonal Close
Packed)
• Nc = 12, Nf=2, Ni=3

• Nav= (Nc/8)+(Nf/2)+(Ni/1)
• =(12/6)+(2/2)+(3/1)
• =6
Properties of metals

• Conduct heat and electricity


• Malleable and ductile
• Electron donors (form oxides)
• Can take a shine
• High density
• High tensile strength
• Solid at room temperature (except
Mercury)
Crystal defects

There are two categories of defects in a crystal

• Line defects -Dislocations.

• Point defects -Vacancy


-Substitution
-Interstitial
Vacancy point defect
If there is an atom missing from the lattice, then the whole lattice
is distorted as other atoms are forced into the vacant space.
Substitution point defect
In this case, a much larger atom has been substituted in the
lattice and distorts the structure.
Interstitial point defect
In this case, a foreign atom has moved into the space between
the atoms of the lattice.
Physical properties
• Density
• Density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
• The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the
lower case Greek letter rho).
• Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided
by volume.

• where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the


volume.
Density
Melting point

• The melting point of a solid is the


temperature at which it changes state from
solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure.
• The melting point of a substance depends
(usually slightly) on pressure and is usually
specified at standard pressure.
• The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of
pressure is very close to 0 °C (32 °F,
273.15 K).
Specific heat

• Energy required to change the


temperature of an object by 1degree c.
• The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per
kelvin.
• Metals have lower specific heat capacity
than plastics.
• Therefore they require less heat to reach
a particular temperature than plastics.
Thermal expansion
• Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change
in volume in response to a change in temperature,
through heat transfer.
• The degree of expansion divided by the change in
temperature is called the material's coefficient of
thermal expansion and generally varies with
temperature.
• (lf-l0) / l0 = 1 (Tf-To)
• Where, lf and lo are initial and final length.
• Tf and T0 are initial and final temperature.
• 1 is coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Unit is reciprocal temperature i.e. 1/c°
Thermal conductivity
• It is the property of a material to conduct heat.
• often denoted k, λ, or κ.
• In SI units, thermal conductivity is measured in
watts per meter kelvin (W/(m·K))
• High energy generation rates within electronics or
turbines require the use of materials with high
thermal conductivity such as copper (see: Copper in
heat exchangers), aluminium, and silver.
• On the other hand, materials with low thermal
conductance, such as polystyrene and alumina, are
use in building construction or in furnaces in an
effort to slow the flow of heat, i.e. for insulation
purposes
Mechanical properties

• Strain
• Change in dimension per unit original
dimension is nothing but strain.
• Stress
• Applied force per unit area is nothing but
stress.
• σ= F/A.
• N/mm2.
• Strength
• Ability of a material to resist the externally
applied force without breaking or yielding.
• Stiffness
• It is ability of material to resist deformation
under stress.
• Elasticity
• It is property of material to regain its original
shape after deformation when the external force
are removed.
• Steel is more elastic than rubber.
• Plasticity
• It is property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently.
• Ductility
• It is ability of a material enabling it to be drawn in
to wire with the application of a tensile force.
• Steel copper aluminium nickel zinc lead tin
• Brittleness
• It is property of a material opposite to ductility.
• It is the property of breaking of material with
little permanent distortion.
• Cast iron is a brittle material
• Malleability
• It is special case of ductility which permits
materials to be rolled or hammered in to thin
sheets.
• Lead soft steel wrought iron copper aluminium.
• Toughness
• It is property of material to resist fracture due to
high impact load like hammer blow.
• Machinability
• It is property of a material which refers to
relative case with which a material can cut.
• Resilience
• It is property of a material to absorb energy and
resist shock and impact load.
• Creep
• When a part is subjected to a constant stress at
high temperature for long period of time, it will
under go slow and permanent deformation called
creep.
• Fatigue
• When a material is subjected to a repeated
stresses, it fails at a stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of material is
called fatigue.
• Hardness
• Resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability.
• It also mean ability of material to cut another
metal.

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