IT6601 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT – IV
 Unit - IV
MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS

Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications –

Design Issues – Routing – Essential of Traditional Routing
Protocols – Popular Routing Protocols –
Vehicular Ad-Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET Vs
VANET Security
–
 Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts
Multi-hop Wireless Networks (MHWNs)
 It is defined as a collection of nodes that communicate
with each other wirelessly by using radio signals with a
shared common channel.
 which forms a temporary network without the aid of
centralized administration or standard support devices
regularly available as conventional networks.
 There are several names for MHWNs; it could be
called packet radio network, Ad-Hoc network or
mobile network.
 Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts
Multi-hop Wireless Networks (MHWNs)
MHWNs

MHWNs MHWNs MHWNs

 A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-

configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices
connected without wires.
 A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is an ad-hoc network
but an ad-hoc network is not necessarily a MANET.
 Types of MANET

Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs)

Smart Phone Ad hoc Networks (SPANs)
Internet based mobile ad hoc networks
(iMANETs)
Military / Tactical MANETs
 Characteristics of MANET
 Autonomous and infrastructureless
 Multi-hop routing
 Dynamic network topology
 Device heterogeneity
 Energy constrained operation
 Bandwidth constrained variable capacity links
 Limited physical security
 Network scalability
 Self-creation, self-organization and self-administration
 Applications of MANET
 Tactical networks
 Emergency services
 Commercial and civilian environments
 Home and enterprise networking
 Education
 Entertainment
 Sensor networks
 Context aware services
 Coverage extension
 MANET Design Issues
Unpredictability of Environment
Unreliability of Wireless Medium
 Resource-Constrained Nodes
 Dynamic Topology
 Transmission Errors
 Node Failures
 Link Failures
 Route Breakages
 Congested Nodes or Links
 Routing
To find and maintain routes between nodes in a
dynamic topology with possibly uni-directional
links, using minimum resources.
Routing Protocols
Proactive protocols (table-based)
 Traditional distributed shortest-path
protocols.
Based on periodic updates. High
routing
overhead.
 Routing
Reactive (on-demand) protocols
Discover routes whenever needed to
reduce routing overhead.
No route created a priori. It is
created
in response to a need. But introduces
delay.
Source- route discovery.
initiated
Hybrid protocols
 Routing Algorithms
 Objective of routing algorithms is to calculate
‘good’ routes
 Routing algorithms for both datagrams and virtual
circuits should satisfy:
 Correctness
 Simplicity
 Robustness
 Stability
 Optimality
 Fairness
 Impossible to satisfy everything at the same time
 Elements of Routing Algorithms
 Optimization Criteria
 Number of Hops
 Cost
 Delay
 Throughput
 Decision Time
Once per session (VCs)
Once per packet (datagram)
 Decision Place
Each node (distributed routing)
Central node (centralized routing)
Sending node (source routing)
 Shortest-Path Routing
Routing algorithms generally use a shortest path
algorithm to calculate the route with the least cost.
Three components
Measurement Component: Nodes (routers)
measure the current characteristics such as delay,
throughput, and “cost”
Protocol: Nodes disseminate the measured
information to other nodes
Calculation: Nodes run a least-cost routing
algorithm to recalculate their routes
 Traditional Routing Protocols

There are two basic approaches to least-cost

routing in a communication network
There are two basic approaches to shortest-
path routing
 Link State Routing
 Distance Vector Routing
 Distance Vector
Each node maintains two tables:
Distance Table: Cost to each node via each
outgoing link
Routing Table: Minimum cost to each node and
next hop node
Nodes exchange messages that contain
information on the cost of a route
Reception of messages triggers recalculation
of routing table
Distance Vector Tables
Algorithm: l(v,w)
v w d

Distance Table RoutingTable

v
w n to via cost
ia (next hop)
to

d Cd(v,w) Cd(v,n) d n Dd(v)

Note: In the figure,
Cd(v,w)<Cd(v,n) and,
therefore,
Dd(v) = Cd(v,n)
l (v,w) cost of link (w,v)
C d(v,w) cost from v to d via w
Dd(v) minimum cost from v to d
 Distance Vector Routing
 Entries of routing tables can change while a packet is
being transmitted. This can lead to a single datagram
visiting the same node more than once (Looping)
 If the period for updating the routing tables is too
short, routing table entries are changed before
convergence (from the previous updates) is achieved
 Example: The ARPANET used a Distance Vector
algorithm with an update period of <1 sec. Due to the
instability of routing, the ARPANET switched in
1979 to a link state routing algorithm
 Characteristics of DV Routing
 Periodic Updates: Updates to the routing tables are sent at
the end of a certain time period. A typical value is 90
seconds.
 Triggered Updates: If a metric changes on a link, a router
immediately sends out an update without waiting for the
end of the update period.
 Full Routing Table Update: Most distance vector routing
protocol send their neighbors the entire routing table (not
only entries which change).
 Route invalidation timers: Routing table entries are invalid
if they are not refreshed. A typical value is to invalidate an
entry if no update is received after 3-6 update periods.
 Link State Routing
 Each node must
discover its neighbors
measure the delay (=cost) to its neighbors
broadcast a packet with this information to all other
nodes
compute the shortest paths to every other router
 The broadcast can be accomplished by flooding
 The shortest paths can be computer with Dijkstra’s
algorithm
Link State Routing: Basic principles
 Each router establishes a relationship (“adjacency”) with
its neighbors
 Each router generates link state advertisements (LSAs)
which are distributed to all routers
LSA = (link id, state of the link, cost, neighbors of
the link)
 Each router maintains a database of all received LSAs
(topological database or link state database), which
describes the network has a graph with weighted edges
 Each router uses its link state database to run a shortest
path algorithm (Dijikstra’s algorithm) to produce the
shortest path to each network
 Link State Routing: Properties
Each node requires complete topology
information
Link state information must be flooded to all
nodes
Guaranteed to converge
 Operation of a LSR Protocol

Dijkstra’s
Link State Algorithm
Received IP Routing
Database
LSAs Table

LSAs are flooded

to other interfaces
 MANET vs. Traditional Routing
 Every node is potentially a router in a MANET, while
most nodes in traditional wired networks do not route
packets
 Nodes transmit and receive their own packets and, also,
forward packets for other nodes
 Topologies are dynamic in MANETs due to mobile nodes,
but are relatively static in traditional networks
 Routing in MANETs must consider both Layer 3 and
Layer 2 information, while traditional protocols rely on
Layer 3 information only
 Link layer information can indicate connectivity and
interference
MANET vs. Traditional Routing
MANET topologies tend to have many more
redundant links than traditional networks.
A MANET “router typically has a single
interface, while a traditional router has an
interface for each network to which it connects
Routed packet sent forward when transmitted, but
also sent to previous transmitter
Channel properties, including capacity and
error rates, are relatively static in traditional
networks, but may vary in MANETs
 MANET vs. Traditional Routing
 Interference is an issue in MANETs, but not in
traditional networks
 Channels can be asymmetric with some Layer 2
technologies
Note that the IEEE 802.11 MAC assumes symmetric
channels
 Power efficiency is an issue in MANETs, while it is
normally not an issue in traditional networks
 MANETs may have gateways to fixed network, but
are typically gstub networks, while traditional
networks can be stub networks or transit networks
MANET vs. Traditional Routing
There is limited physical security in a MANET
compared to a traditional network
Increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing,
and denial-of-security attacks
Traditional routing protocols for wired networks
do not work well in most MANETs
MANETs are too dynamic
Wireless links present problems of interference,
limited capacity, etc.
 Classification of Unicast Routing
Proactive Routing Protocol.
Eg. OLSR, FSR, WRP,
Reactive Routing Protocol.
Eg. AODV, DSR
Hybrid Routing Protocol
Eg. TORA, ZRP
 Popular Routing Protocols
 Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR)
 Destination Sequence Distance Vector(DSDV)
 Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector(AODV)
 Dynamic Source Routing(DSR)
 Flow-state in DSR
 Power-Aware DSR-based
 Cluster Based Routing Protocol
 Fisheye State Routing protocol
 Zone-based Hierarchical Link State Routing
Protocol
Destination Sequence Distance Vector
DSDV is Proactive (Table Driven)
Each node maintains routing information for
all known destinations
Routing information must be updated
periodically
Traffic overhead even if there is no change in
network topology
Maintains routes which are never used
Keep the simplicity of Distance Vector
 Destination Sequence Distance Vector
Guarantee Loop Freeness
New Table Entry for Destination Sequence
Number
Allow fast reaction to topology changes
Make immediate route advertisement on
significant changes in routing table
but wait with advertising of unstable routes
(damping fluctuations)
 DSDV (Table Entries)
 Sequence number originated from destination.
Ensures loop freeness.

 Install Time when entry was made (used to delete stale

entries from table)

 Stable Data Pointer to a table holding information on

how stable a route is. Used to damp fluctuations in
network.
Destinatio Next Metric Seq. Nr Install Stable Data
n A A 0 A-550 Time
001000 Ptr_A
B B 1 B-102 001200 Ptr_B
C B 3 C-588 001200 Ptr_C
D B 4 D-312 001200 Ptr_D
 DSDV (Route Advertisements)
 Advertise to each neighbor own routing information
Destination Address
Metric = Number of Hops to Destination
Destination Sequence Number
 Rules to set sequence number information
On each advertisement increase own destination
sequence number (use only even numbers)
If a node is no more reachable (timeout) increase
sequence number of this node by 1 (odd sequence
number) and set metric = 
 DSDV (Route Selection)
Update information is compared to own routing
table
Select route with higher destination sequence
number (This ensure to use always newest
information from destination)
Select the route with better metric when
sequence numbers are equal.
A 1 B 2 C
Dest. Next Metri Seq Dest. Next Metri Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A c 0 A-550 A A c 1 A-550 A B 1 A-550
B B 1 B-100 B B 0 B-100 B B 2 B-100
C B 3 C-586 C C 2 C-588 C C 0 C-588
 DSDV (Route Advertisement)
B increases Seq.Nr from 100 -> 102
B broadcasts routing information
to Neighbors A, C including
destination sequence numbers

(A, 1, A-500) (A, 1, A-500)

(B, 0, B-102) (B, 0, B-102)
(C, 1, C-588) (C, 1, C-588)

A 1 B 1 C
Dest. Next Metri Seq Dest. Next Metri Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A c 0 A-550 A A c 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-588 C C 1 C-588 C C 0 C-588
DSDV (Respond to Topology Changes)
 Immediate advertisements
Information on new Routes, broken Links, metric
change is immediately propagated to neighbors.
 Full/Incremental Update:
Full Update: Send all routing information from own
table.
Incremental Update: Send only entries that has
changed. (Make it fit into one single packet)
 DSDV (New Node)
2. Insert entry for D with sequence
number D-000
Then immediately broadcast own
table 1. D broadcast for first time
Send Sequence number D-000

(D, 0, D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq.
A A c 0 A-550 A A c 1 A-550 A B c 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-104 B B 1 B-104
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-590 C C 0 C-590
D D 1 D-000
 DSDV (New Node cont.)
3. C increases its sequence
number to C-592 then
4. B gets this new information broadcasts its new table.
and updates its table…….

(A, 2, A-550) (A, 2, A-550)

(B, 1, B-102) (B, 1, B-102)
……… (C, 0, C- (C, 0, C-
……… 592) (D, 1, 592) (D, 1,
D-000) D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq.
A A c 0 A-550 A A c 1 A-550 A B c 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-592 C C 0 C-592
D C 2 D-000 D D 1 D-000
DSDV (No loops, No count to infinity)
2. B does its broadcast
-> no affect on C (C knows that B
has stale information because C has
higher seq. number for destination
D) 1. Node C detects broken Link:
-> no loop -> no count to infinity -> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
(only case where not the destination
sets the sequence number -> odd
number)
(D, 2, D-100) (D, 2, D-100)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq.
… … c… c… … c… … … c…
D B 3 D-100 D C 2 D-100 D D  D-101
DSDV (Immediate Advertisement)
3. Immediate propagation 2. Immediate propagation
B to A: C to B:
(update information has higher (update information has higher
Seq. Nr. -> replace table entry) Seq. Nr. -> replace table entry)
1. Node C detects broken Link:
-> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
(only case where not the destination
sets the sequence number -> odd
number)
(D, , D-101) (D, , D-101)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq. Dest. Next Metri Seq.
… … c… ... c… … c… ... … … c…
D
D B
B 4
3 D-100
D-100 D
D C
C 3
2 D-100
D-100 D
D B
D 1
1 D-100
D-100
D B  D-101 D C  D-101 D D  D-101
 DSDV (Problem of Fluctuations)
 What are Fluctuations
 Entry for D in A: [D, Q, 14, D-100]
A  D makes Broadcast with Seq. Nr. D-102
P Q
 A receives from P Update (D, 15, D-102)
-> Entry for D in A: [D, P, 15, D-102]
A must propagate this route immediately.
11 10  A receives from Q Update (D, 14, D-102)
Hops Hops -> Entry for D in A: [D, Q, 14, D-102]
 A must propagate this route immediately.
 This can happen every time D or any other
(D,0,D- node does its broadcast and lead to
102)
D unnecessary route advertisements in the
network, so called fluctuations.
 DSDV (Damping Fluctuations)
 How to damp fluctuations
 Record last and avg. Settling Time of every
A
P
Route in a separate table. (Stable Data)
Q
Settling Time = Time between arrival of
first route and the best route with a given
seq. nr.
11 10  A still must update his routing table on the
Hops Hops
first arrival of a route with a newer seq. nr.,
but he can wait to advertising it. Time to
wait is proposed to be 2*(avg. Settling
(D,0,D- Time).
102)
D
 Like this fluctuations in larger networks
can be damped to avoid unnecessary
advertisement, thus saving bandwidth.
 DSR General
 Route discovery
 Is the mechanism by which a source
node S, obtains a route to a destination D
 Used only when S attempt to send a
packet to D and does not already knows
a route to D
 DSR General
 Route maintainance
 Is the mechanism by which source node S is
able to detect if the network topology has
changed and can no longer use its route to D
 If S knows another route to D, use it
 Else invoke route discovery process again to
find a new route
 Used only when S wants to send a packet to D
 DSR General

Each mechanism operate entirely on demand

DSR requires no periodic packets of any kind at
any level
 Uni-directional and asymmetric routes support
(e.g. send a packet to a node D through a route
and receive a packet D from another route)
 DSR Basic Route Discovery
 When S wants to sent a packet to D
 it places in the header of the packet a source route
giving the sequence of hops that the packet should
follow on its way to D
 S obtains a suitable source route by searching its
route table
 If no route found for D, S initiate the Route
Discovery protocol to dynamically find a new route
to D
 DSR Basic Route Discovery
Sender
 Broadcasts a Route Request Packet (RREQ)
 RREQ contains a unique Request ID and the address of the
sender
Receiver
 If this node is the destination node, or has route to the
destination send a Route Reply packet (RREP)
 Else if is the source, drop the packet
 Else if is already in the RREQ's route table,
drop the packet
 Else append the node address in the RREQ's route table
and broadcast the updated RREQ
 DSR Basic Route Discovery
Id=2, {S, W, Z}

D S Source node
D Destination node
Z Id=2, {S, Y}
W Z Neighbor nodes
Id=2, {S, W}
V
RREQ packet
W
Y

Id=2, {S} U
S Id=2, {S, Y}

S sends Id=2, {S}

RREQ
 DSR Basic Route Discovery
 When a RREQ reaches the destination node, a RREP must be
sent back to source
 The destination node
 Examine its own Route Cache for a route back to source
 If found, it use this route to send back the RREP
 Else, the destination node starts a new Route Discovery process to
find a route towards source node
 In protocols that require bi-directional links like 802.11, the
reversed
route list of the RREQ packet can be used, in order to avoid the
second Route Discovery
 DSR Basic Route Maintenance
Each node transmitting a packet
is responsible for confirming that the packet has been
received by the next hop along the source route
 The confirmation it is done with a standard part of MAC
layer (e.g. Link-level ACKs in 802.11)
 If none exists, a DSR-specific software takes the
responsibility to sent back an ACK
 When retransmissions of a packet in a node reach a
maximum number, a Route Error Packet (RERR) is sent
from the node back to the source, identifying the broken
link
 DSR Basic Route Maintenance

 The source
 Removes from the routing table the broken route
 Retransmission of the original packet is a function of upper
layers (e.g. TCP)
 It searches the routing table for another route, or start a
new Route Discovery process
 (DSR) Basic Route Maintenance
S Source node

Link fails D Destination node

D
W Z Neighbor nodes
Z RERR packet
RERR(Z, D)
Intermediate V
node sents a
RERR W
RERR(Z, D) Y

Route Table U
S
D: S, W, Z, D
V: S, Y, V
 AODV Overview
 AODV is a packet routing protocol designed for use in
mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
 Intended for networks that may contain thousands of
nodes
 One of a class of demand-driven protocols
The route discovery mechanism is invoked only if a
route to a destination is not known
 UDP is the transport layer protocol
 Source, destination and next hop are addressed using IP
addressing
 Each node maintains a routing table that contains
information about reaching destination nodes.
Each entry is keyed to a destination node.
 AODV Overview
 Routing table size is minimized by only including next
hop information, not the entire route to a destination
node.
 Sequence numbers for both destination and source are
used.
 Managing the sequence number is the key to efficient
routing and route maintenance
Sequence numbers are used to indicate the relative
freshness of routing information
Updated by an originating node, e.g., at initiation of
route discovery or a route reply.
Observed by other nodes to determine freshness.
 AODV Overview

The basic message set consists of:

RREQ – Route request
RREP – Route reply
RERR – Route error
HELLO – For link status monitoring
 Routing Table Fields
 Destination IP address
 Destination Sequence Number
 Valid Destination Sequence Number Flag
 Other state and routing flags
 Network Interface
 Hop Count (needed to reach destination)
 Next Hop
 Precursor List
 Lifetime (route expiration or deletion time)
 AODV Operation – Message Types
 RREQ Messages
While communication routes between nodes are valid,
AODV does not play any role.
A RREQ message is broadcasted when a node needs to
discover a route to a destination.
As a RREQ propagates through the network,
intermediate nodes use it to update their routing tables
(in the direction of the source node).
The RREQ also contains the most recent sequence
number for the destination.
A valid destination route must have a sequence
number at least as great as that contained in the RREQ.
 RREQ Message
A

B?

B?
B?
B?

B?
B? B?

B
AODV Operation – Message Types
 RREP Messages
When a RREQ reaches a destination node, the
destination route is made available by unicasting a RREP
back to the source route.
A node generates a RREP if:
It is itself the destination.
It has an active route to the destination. Ex: an
intermediate node may also respond with an RREP if
it has a “fresh enough” route to the destination.
As the RREP propagates back to the source node,
intermediate nodes update their routing tables (in the
direction of the destination node).
 RREP Message
A

A
A

A
A

A
A
B
 AODV Operation – Message Types
 RERR Messages
This message is broadcast for broken links
Generated directly by a node or passed on when
received from another node
 Hello Messages
Hello Message = RREP with TTL = 1
This message is used for broadcasting connectivity
information.
A node should use Hello messages only if it is part
of an active route.
 Message routing

Source
G
A RREQ RREQ
RREQ
RREP RREQ
B D RREQ
RREP
RREQ
RREQ RREP
F Destination
C RREQ

RREQ
E
 Congestion Handling

 One method that AODV handle congestion is:

If the source node receives no RREP from the
destination, it may broadcast another RREQ, up to
a maximum of RREQ_RETRIES.
For each additional attempt that a source node
tried to broadcast RREQ, the waiting time for the
RREP is multiplied by 2.
 DSR is not capable of handling congestion.
 Congestion Handling

Other possible methods to improve AODV

congestion handling:
A route may predict when congestion is about
to occur and try to avoid it by reduce the
transmission rate.
Schedule the requests so that it will not
overload the network.
 AODV Routing
There are two phases
Route Discovery
Route Maintenance
Each node maintains a routing table with
knowledge about the network.
AODV deals with route table management.
Route information maintained even for short lived
routes – reverse pointers.
 Entries in Routing Table
 Destination IP Address
 Destination Sequence Number
 Valid Destination Sequence Number flag
 Other state and routing flags (e.g., valid, invalid, repairable,
being repaired)
 Network Interface
 Hop Count (number of hops needed to reach destination)
 Next Hop
 List of Precursors
 Lifetime (expiration or deletion time of the route)
 DSR maintains additional table entries, causing a larger
memory overhead
 Discovery
 Broadcast RREQ messages.
 Intermediate nodes update their routing table
 Forward the RREQ if it is not the destination.
 Maintain back-pointer to the originator.
 Destination generates RREQ message.
 RREQ sent back to source using the reverse pointer
set up by the intermediate nodes.
 RREQ reaches destination, communication starts.
 Algorithm for Discovery
 @Originator: If a route to the destination is available, start
sending data. Else generate a RREQ packet. Increment the
RREQID by IP
1.Destination 1. address,
Incrementcurrently
the sequence
availablenumber
sequenceby
number included.
 @Intermediate Node: Generate route reply, if a 'fresh
enough' route is a valid route entry for the destination
whose associated sequence number is at least as great as
that contained in the RREQ. Change the sequence number
of the destination node if stale, increment the hop count by
1 and forward.
 @Destination: 1.Increment sequence number of the
destination. 2.Generate a RREQ message and sent back to
Originator.
Discovery
 Maintenance

 Hello messages broadcast by active nodes periodically

HELLO_INTERVAL.
 No hello message from a neighbor in
DELETE_PERIOD, link failure identified.
 A local route repair to that next hop initiated.
 After a timeout ,error propagated both to originator and
destination.
 Entries based on the node invalidated.
 RERR Messages
 Message is broadcasted when
 A node detects that a link with adjacent
neighbor is broken (destination no longer
reachable).
 If it gets a data packet destined to a node
for which it does not have an active route
and is not repairing.
 If it receives a RERR from a neighbor for
one or more active routes.
 RERR Processing

 Build Affected Destination Listing

I. List unreachable destinations containing
unreachable neighbor & destination using
unreachable as next hop
II. Only one unreachable destination, which
node already has.
III. List of nodes where RERR is next hop
 Update information
 Transmit RERR for each item listed
 RERR – information update

Destination Sequence #
Update sequence # for case i and ii
Copy sequence # for case iii
Invalidate route entry
Update Lifetime field as (current time +
DELETE_PERIOD)
Only now may route entry be deleted
 RERR message transmission
Unicast
A node detects that a link with adjacent neighbor is
broken (destination no longer reachable).
Send RERR to single recipient
If it gets a data packet destined to a node for which it
does not have an active route and is not repairing.
If it receives a RERR from a neighbor for one or more
active routes.
Unicast iterative
Send RERR to a number of recipients individually
Broadcast
Notify multiple recipients simultaneously
Broadcast via 255.255.255.255 TTL = 1
 A Combined Protocol
It is possible to exploit the good features of
both reactive and proactive protcols and the
Zone routing protocol does that.
The proactive part of the protocol is restricted
to a small neighbourhood of a node and the
reactive part is used for routing across the
network.
This reduces latency in route discovery and
reduces the number of control messages as
well.
 Routing Zones
Each node S in the network has a routing
zone. This is the proactive zone for S as S
collects information about its routing zone in
the manner of the DSDV protocol.
If the radius of the routing zone is k, each node
in the zone can be reached within k hops from
S.
 The minimum distance of a peripheral node
from S is k (the radius).
 A Routing Zone

K L

A
B
I
G
S

C E
D

 All nodes except L are in the routing zone of S with radius 2.

 Nodes in a Routing Zone
The coverage of a node´s trasmitter is the set
of nodes in direct communication with the
node. These are also called neighbours.
In other words, the neighbours of a node are
the nodes which are one hop away.
For S, if the radius of the routing zone is k,
the zone includes all the nodes which are k-
hops away.
 Neighbour Discovery Protocol
Like other ad hoc routing protocols, each node
executes ZRP to know its current neighbours.
Each node transmits a hello message at
intervals to all nodes regular
within its transmission
range.
If a node P does not receive a hello message
from a previously known neighbour Q, P
removes Q from its list of neighbours.
 Basic Strategy in ZRP
The routing in ZRP is divided into two parts
Intrazone routing : First, the packet is sent within
the routing zone of the source node to reach the
peripheral nodes.
Interzone routing : Then the packet is sent from
the peripheral nodes towards the destination node.

S
 Intrazone Routing
Each node collects information about all
the nodes in its routing zone proactively.
This strategy is similar to a proactive
protocol like DSDV.
Each node maintains a routing table for its
routing zone, so that it can find a route to
any node in the routing zone from this
table.
 Intrazone Routing

In the original ZRP proposal, intrazone routing

is done by maintaining a link state table at
each node.
Each node periodically broadcasts a message
similar to a hello message kwon as a zone
notification message.
Suppose the zone radius is k for k>1
 Zone Notification Message
A hello message dies after one hop, i.e., after
reaching a node´s neighbours.
A zone notification mesage dies after k hops,
i.e., after reaching the node´s neighbours at a
distance of k hops.
Each node receiving this message decreases
the hop count of the message by 1 and
forwards the message to its neighbours.
Keeping Track of Nodes in a Routing Zone

The message is not forwarded any more when

the hop count is 0.
Each node P keeps track of its neighbour Q
from whom it received the message through
an entry in its link state table.
P can keep track of all the nodes in its routing
zone through its link state table.
ZRP: Example with Zone Radius K= 2
S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
D
E
F

Denotes route request

ZRP: Example with Zone Radius K= 2
S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
E D
F

E knows route from E to D,

so route request need not
Denotes route reply be
forwarded to D from E
ZRP: Example with Zone Radius K= 2
S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
D
E
F

Denotes route taken by Data

 Interzone Routing
The interzone routing discovers routes to the
destination reactively.
Consider a source (S) and a destination (D).
If D is within the routing zone of S, the
routing is completed in the intrazone routing
phase.
Otherwise, S sends the packet to the
peripheral nodes of its zone through
bordercasting.
 Bordercasting
The bordercasting to peripheral nodes can be
done mainly in two ways
By maintaining a multicast tree for the
peripheral nodes. S is the root of this tree.
Otherwise, S maintains complete routing
table for its zone and routes the packet to
the peripheral nodes by consulting this
routing table.
 Interzone Route Discovery
S sends a route request (RREQ) message to
the peripheral nodes of its zone through
bordercasting.
Each peripheral node P executes the same
algorithm.
First, P checks whether the destination D is
within its routing zone and if so, sends the
packet to D.
Otherwise, P sends the packet to the peripheral
nodes of its routing zone through bordercasting.
An Example of Interzone Routing

S C
B

D H
 Route Reply in Interzone Routing
If a node P finds that the destination D is
within its routing zone, P can initiate a route
reply.
Each node appends its address to the RREQ
message during the route request phase. This
is similar to route request phase in DSR.
This accumulated address can be used to send
the route reply (RREP) back to the source
node S.
 Route Reply in Interzone Routing
An alternative strategy is to keep forward and
backward links at every node´s routing table
similar to the AODV protocol. This helps in
keeping the packet size constant.
A RREQ usually results in more than one
RREP and ZRP keeps track of more than one
path between S and D. An alternative path is
chosen in case one path is broken.
 Route Maintenance
When there is a broken link along an active
path between S and D, a local path repair
procedure is initiated.
A broken link is always within the routing
zone of some node.

B
A
 Route Maintenance
Hence, repairing a broken link requires
establishing a new path between two nodes
within a routing zone.
The repair is done by the starting node of the
link (node A in the previous diagram) by
sending a route repair message to node B
within its routing zone.
This is like a RREQ message from A with B as
the destination.
How to Prevent Flooding of the Network
Interzone routing may generate many copies of
the same RREQ message if not directed
correctly.
The RREQ should be steered towards the
destination or towards previously unexplored
regions of the network.
Otherwise, the same RREQ message may
reach the same nodes many times, causing the
flooding of the network.
 Routing Zones Overlap Heavily
Since each node has its own routing zone,
the routing zones of neighbouring nodes
overlap heavily.
Since each peripheral node of a zone
forwards the RREQ message, the message
can reach the same node multiple times
without proper control.
Each node may forward the same RREQ
multiple times.
Guiding the Search in InterZone Routing

The search explores new regions of the network.

Query Forwarding and Termination Strategy

When a node P receives a RREQ message, P

records the message in its list of RREQ
messages that it has received.
If P receives the same RREQ more than
once, it does not forward the RREQ the
second time onwards.
Also P can keep track of passing RREQ
messages in several ways.
different
 Termination Strategies
In the promiscuous mode of operation
according to IEEE 802.11 standards, a node
can overhear passing traffic.
Also, a node may act as a routing node
during bordercasting in the intrazone routing
phase.
Whenever P receives a RREQ message
through any of these means, it remembers
which routing zone the message is meant for.
 Termination Strategies

Suppose P has a list of nodes A, B,C,...,N such

that the RREQ message has already arrived in
the routing zones of the nodes A, B, C, ...,N.
Now P receives a request to forward a RREQ
message from another node Q.
This may happen when P is a peripheral node
for the routing zone of Q.
Early Termination of Unnecessary RREQs

A Q
B
P
C
X
N

P receives a RREQ from Q since P is a peripheral

node for the routing zone of Q.
P does not bordercast the RREQ to A,B,...,N but
only to X which is not in its list.
 Evaluation of ZRP
When the radius of the routing zone is 1, the
behaviour of ZRP is like a pure reactive
protocol, for example, like DSR.
When the radius of the routing zone is
infinity (or the diameter of the network),
ZRP behaves like a pure proactive protocol,
for example, like DSDV.
The optimal zone radius depends on node
mobility and route query rates.
 Control Traffic
Control traffic generated by a protocol is the
number of overhead packets generated due to
route discovery requests.
In ZRP, control traffic is generated due to
interzone and intrazone routing.
Hello messages transmitted for neighbour
discovery are not considered as control
traffic since mobility has no effect on it.
Control Traffic for Intrazone Routing
 In the intrazone routing, each node needs to
construct the bordercast tree for its zone.
 With a zone radius of r, this
complete exchangerequires
of information over a
distance of 2r-1 hops.
 For unbounded with a uniform
networks distribution of results in O( r 2 )
nodes, this intrazone
control traffic.
Control Traffic for Intrazone Routing

However, for a bounded network, the

dependence is lower than r 2
There is no intrazone control traffic when
r=1.
The intrazone control traffic grows fast in
practice with increase in zone radius. So,
it is important to keep the zone radius
small.
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
When the zone radius is 1, the control traffic is
maximum since ZRP degenerates into flood
search.
In other words, every RREQ message
potentially floods the entire network. This is
due to the fact that all the neighbours of a node
n are its peripheral nodes.
However, control traffic drops considerably
even if the zone radius is just 2.
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
The control traffic can be reduced drastically
with early query termination, when a RREQ
message is prevented from going to the same
region of the network multiple times.
However, the amount of control traffic
depends both on node mobility and query rate.
The performance of ZRP is measured by
compairing control traffic with call-to-mobility
(CMR) ratio.
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
The call-to-mobility ratio (CMR) is the ratio of
route query rate to node speed.
As CMR increases, the number of control
messages is reduced by increasing the radius
of the routing zones.
This is because, it is easier to maintain larger
routing zones if mobility is low. Hence, route
discovery traffic also reduces.
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
On the other hand, CMR is low if mobility is
high.
In such a case, the routing zone maintenance
becomes very costly and smaller routing zones
are better for reducing control traffic.
An optimally configured ZRP for a CMR of
500 [query/km] produces 70% less traffic than
flood searching.
 Route Query Response Time

For a fixed CMR, the route query response

time decreases initially with increased zone
radius.
However, after a certain radius, the response
time increases with zone radius.
This is due to the fact that the network takes
longer time to settle even with small changes
in large routing zones.
Expected advantages from multicast
routing
Providing efficient bandwidth
Reducing communication cost
Efficient delivery of data
Supporting dynamic topology
 Technical constraints for multicast
routing
Minimizing network load
Providing basic support for reliable
transmission
Designing optimal routes
Providing robustness, efficiency, and
adaptability
 Classification

Globally, there are two main categories of

multicast routing protocols
Tree-based protocols
Mesh-based protocols
 Examples of tree-based protocols
 Multicast Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
(MAODV) routing protocol
 Extends AODV to offer multicast capabilities
 Builds shared multicast trees on-demand to
connect group members
 Capable of unicast, broadcast, and multicast
 Associativity based Multicast (ABAM) routing
protocol
 Constructed in an attempt to reduce
communication overhead and end-to-end delay
An example of mesh-based protocols
 On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP)
 ODMRP is based on a mesh structure for connecting
multicast members using the concept of forwarding
group nodes.
 When a data packet reaches a multicast receiver, the
receiver creates a Join-Table and broadcasts it to the
neighbors.
 Each group member propagates the Join-Table until it
reaches the multicast source via the shortest path.
 This process constructs and updates the routes from the
source to the receiver, creating a mesh of nodes.
 VANET
s
 A VANET (Vehicular Ad hoc NETwork) is a special
kind
of MANET in which packets are exchanged between
mobile nodes (vehicles) traveling on constrained paths
 Inter-vehicle communication (IVC)
Systems
 IVC systems are completely infrastructure-free; only
onboard units (OBUs) sometimes also called in-vehicle
equipment (IVE) are needed.
 Single-hop and multi-hop IVCs (SIVCs and MIVCs).
 SIVC systems are useful for applications requiring
short-range communications (e.g., lane merging,
automatic cruise control)
 MIVC systems are more complex than SIVCs but can
also support applications that require long-range
communications (e.g., traffic monitoring)
 IVC systems

a) Single-hop IVC system b) multi-hop IVC system

Roadside-to-Vehicle Communication
(RVC) Systems
RVC systems assume that all communications
take place between roadside infrastructure
(including roadside units [RSUs]) and OBUs.
Depending on the application, two different
types of infrastructure can be distinguished
Sparse RVC (SRVC) system
Ubiquitous RVC (URVC) system
 RVC Systems –SRVC
SRVC systems are capable of providing
communication services at hot spots.
A busy intersection scheduling its traffic light, a
gas station advertising its existence (and prices),
and parking availability at an airport, are
examples of applications requiring an SRVC
system.
An SRVC system can be deployed gradually,
thus not requiring substantial investments before
any available benefits.
 RVC Systems -URVC
A URVC system : providing all roads with
high-speed communication would enable
applications unavailable with any of the other
systems.
Unfortunately, a URVC system may require
considerable investments for providing full
(even significant) coverage of existing
roadways (especially in large countries like
the United States)
 Hybrid Vehicular
Communication
(HVC) Systems
 HVC systems are proposed for extending the range of
RVC systems.
 In HVC systems vehicles communicate with roadside
infrastructure even when they are not in direct wireless
range by using other vehicles as mobile routers.
 An HVC system enables the same applications as an
RVC system with a larger transmission range.
 The main advantage is that it requires less roadside
infrastructure. However, one disadvantage is that
network connectivity may not be guaranteed in
scenarios with low vehicle density.
 IVC vs. MANET
 MANETs are wireless multihop networks that lack
infrastructure, and are decentralized and self-organizing
 IVC systems satisfy all these requirements, and are therefore a
special class of MANETs
 There are several characteristics that differentiate IVCs from
the common assumptions made in the MANET literature:
Applications
Addressing
Rate of Link Changes
Mobility Model
Energy Efficiency
 IVC vs. MANET
Applications
While most MANET articles do not address
specific applications, the common assumption in
MANET literature is that MANET applications are
identical (or similar) to those enabled by the
Internet.
In contrast, as we show later, IVCs have
completely different applications. An important
consequence of the difference in the applications is
the difference in the addressing modes.
 IVC vs. MANET
 Addressing
Faithful to the Internet model, MANET applications
require point-to-point (unicast) with fixed
addressing; that is, the recipient of a message is
another node in the network specified by its IP address.
IVC applications often require dissemination of the
messages to many nodes (multicast) that satisfy some
geographical constraints and possibly other criteria
(e.g., direction of movement). The need for this
addressing mode requires a significantly different
routing paradigm.
 IVC vs. MANET
 Rate of Link Changes
In MANETs, the nodes are assumed to have
moderate mobility. This assumption MANET
allows protocols (e.g., Ad Hoc On Demand
routing
Distance Vector, AODV) to establish end-to-end
paths that are valid for a reasonable amount of time
and only occasionally need repairs.
In IVC applications, it is shown that due to the high
degree of mobility of the nodes involved, even
multi-hop paths that only use nodes moving in the
same direction on a highway have a lifetime
comparable to the time needed to discover the path.
 IVC vs. MANET
 Mobility Model
In MANETs, the random waypoint (RWP) is (by
far) the most commonly employed mobility model.
However, for IVC systems, most existing literature
recognized that RWP would be a very poor
approximation of real vehicular mobility; instead,
detailed vehicular traffic simulators are used.
 Energy Efficiency
While in MANETs a significant body of literature
is concerned with power-efficient protocols, IVC
enjoys a practically unlimited power supply.
 VANET
 Like MANETs:
s
They self-organize over an evolving topology
They may rely on multi-hop communications
They can work without the support of a fixed
infrastructure
 Unlike MANETs:
They have been conceived for a different set of
applications
They move at higher speeds (0-40 m/s)
They do not have battery and storage constraints
 VANET
s
Communication modes:
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) among vehicles
Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), between vehicles and
Road-Side Units (RSUs)
Vehicle-to-X (V2X), mixed V2V-V2I approach
V2V
RSU
V2I V2I

V2V

RSU
 VANETs
Applications
 Active Road-Safety Applications
To avoid the risk of car accidents: e.g., cooperative collision
warning, pre-crash sensing, lane change, traffic violation
warning
 Traffic efficiency and management applications
To optimize flows of vehicles: e.g., enhanced route
guidance/navigation, traffic light optimal scheduling, lane
merging assistance
 Comfort and Infotainment applications
To provide the driver with information support and
entertainment: e.g., point of interest notification, media
downloading, map download and update, parking access,
media streaming, voice over IP, multiplayer gaming, web
browsing, social networking
 VANET
s
 VANETs applications exhibit very
heterogeneous requirements
 Safety applications require reliable, low-latency,
and efficient message dissemination
 Non-safety applications have very different
communication requirements, from no special
real-time requirements of traveler information
support applications, to guaranteed Quality-of-
Service needs of multimedia and interactive
entertainment applications
 Connectivity in
VANETs
There are three primary models for
interconnecting vehicles based on
 Network infrastructure
 Inter-vehicle communications
 Hybrid configuration
 Connectivity in
VANETs
 Network infrastructure
Vehicles connect to a centralized server or a backbone
network such as the Internet, through the road-side
infrastructure, e.g., cellular base stations, IEEE 802.11
Access Points, IEEE 802.11p RSUs
 Connectivity in
VANETs
Inter-vehicle communications
Use of direct ad-hoc connectivity among vehicles via
multihop for applications requiring long-range
communications (e.g., traffic monitoring), as well as
short-range communications (e.g., lane merging)
 Connectivity in
Hybrid VANETs
configuration
Use of a combination of V2V and V2I. Vehicles in
range directly connect to the road-side infrastructure,
while exploit multi-hop connectivity otherwise
 Connectivity in
VANETs
 Vehicles’ connectivity is determined by a
combination of several factors, like:
Space and time dynamics of moving vehicles
(i.e., vehicle density and speed)
Density of RSUs
Radio communication range RSU

Vehicle
density/speed
Communication
Connectivity
range

Vehicular
Time of day
scenario
Market • Urban
penetration • Highway
 Improving Connectivity in
• VANETs
Opportunistic approaches for connectivity
support in VANETs
– Opportunistic contacts, both among vehicles and from
vehicles to available RSUs, can be used to instantiate
and sustain both safety and non-safety applications
• Opportunistic forwarding is the main technique
adopted in DTN
– In VANETs bridging technique links the
,
partitioning that exists between clusters traveling in
the same direction of the roadway
Improving Connectivity in
VANETs
 The use of a vehicular grid together with an
opportunistic infrastructure placed on the roads
guarantees seamless connectivity in dynamic
vehicular scenarios
 Hybrid communication paradigms for vehicular
networking are used to limit intermittent connectivity
Vehicle-to-X (V2X) works in heterogeneous
scenarios, where overlapping wireless networks
partially cover the vehicular grid. It relies on the
concept of multi-hop communication path
Improving Connectivity in
VANETs
 Different connectivity phases
 Phase 1 (No connectivity)
A vehicle is traveling alone in the vehicular grid (totally-
disconnected traffic scenario). The vehicles are completely
disconnected
 Phase 2 (Short-range connectivity)
A vehicle is traveling in the vehicular grid and forming a
cluster with other vehicles. Only V2V connectivity is
available
 Phase 3 (Long-range connectivity)
A vehicle is traveling in the vehicular grid with available
neighboring RSUs. Only V2I connectivity is assumed to be
available
Examples
 Applications for
VANETs
 Public Safety Applications
 Traffic Management Applications
 Traffic Coordination and Assistance Applications
 Traveller Information Support Applications
 Comfort Applications
 Air pollution emission measurement and reduction
 Law enforcement
 Broadband services
Problems in MANET

Routing
Security and Reliability
Quality of Service
Internetworking
Power Consumption
 SECURITY

 A major issue in Mobile ad-hoc network is

“SECURITY”.
 Two approaches in protecting mobile ad-
hoc networks
 Reactive approach: Seeks to detect security
threats and react accordingly.
 Proactive approach: Attempts to prevent an
attacker from launching attacks through various
cryptographic techniques.
 Issues

Secure Multicasting
Secure routing
Privacy-aware Routing
Key management
Intrusion detection System
 Issues Contd..
 Secure multicasting: Is a communication method where
a single data packet can be transmitted from a sender and
replicated to a set of receivers.
 Secure routing: Most MANET routing protocols are
vulnerable to attacks that can freeze the whole network.
Need some solutions that work even if some nodes
compromised.
 Privacy-aware Routing: Building routing protocols that
prevent intermediate nodes from performing traffic
analysis.
 Schemes for minimizing size of crypto-tags( digital
signatures) are needed.
 Issues Contd..

Key Management
security goals in MANET are mainly achieved
through trusted Certificate Authority (CA)
compromised CA can easily damage the entire
network.
Intrusion detection and response schemes:
Anomaly detection is difficult in MANETs
(ex: types of attacks and their source).
collaborative IDS schemes are needed.
 Security Goals

 Authentication
 Confidentiality
 Integrity
 Non-repudiation
 Availability
 Detection and Isolation
 Security Goals
 Authentication: A node must know the identity of the peer node it
is communicating with. Without authentication, an attacker could
gain sensitive information and interfere with other nodes
 Confidentiality: Ensures certain information is never disclosed to
unauthorized entities.
 Integrity: Message being transmitted is never corrupted.
 Non-Repudiation: The sender cannot later deny sending
the
 information and the receiver cannot deny the reception.
Availability: Nodes should be available for communication at
all
 times. A Key
E.g.: nodemanagement
need continue to provide services despite
service.
 attacks.
Detection and Isolation: Require the protocol can identify
misbehaving nodes and render them unable to interfere with
routing.
 IDS-MANET
 IDS: Intrusion detection System which is used to detect and report
the malicious activity in ad hoc networks.
 Ex: Detecting critical nodes using IDS
 Intrusion Detection System (IDS) can collect and analyze audit data
for the entire network.
 Critical node is a node whose failure or malicious behavior
disconnects or significantly degrades the performance of the
network.
 Packets may be dropped due to network congestion or because a
malicious node is not faithfully executing a routing algorithm.
 Researchers have proposed a number of collaborative IDS systems.
 Some of the schemes are neighbor-monitoring, trust-building, and
cluster-based voting schemes which are used to detect and report
the malicious activity in ad hoc networks.