The Respiratory

System
 Group Members

METASEBYA BEKELE DABI UGR/0207/15

MICHAEL ANDUALEM TESHOME UGR/1701/15
MIHRET KEFETEW LOBANGO UGR/6478/14
MOHAMMED SEID HUSSEN UGR/6641/15
NARDOS TESHOME MAMO UGR/5832/15
NATNAEL ASHENAFI ASRAT UGR/5341/15
NEJAT WUDAD ABAJEBEL UGR/1049/15
ROBEL ZELALEM SEIFU UGR/2494/15

Submission Date: May 28,2024

Submitted to: Yoseph Teshome
WHAT IS RESPIRATION?

● The respiratory system is the collection of organs

and structures responsible for the process of
respiration, which is the exchange of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) between an
organism and its environment.
● Breathing is the process that brings oxygen in
the air into your lungs and moves oxygen and
through your body. Our lungs remove the oxygen
and pass it through our bloodstream, where it's
carried off to the tissues and organs that allow
us to walk, talk, and move.
● This coordinated system of organs and
structures allows for the essential process of
respiration, which is vital for the survival and
proper functioning of the human body.
 The Respiratory Regions

● Upper Respiratory Tract: includes the nose, pharynx, and larynx. These
structures are responsible for filtering, warming, and humidifying the air we
breath.
● Lower Respiratory Tract :The lower respiratory tract includes the
trachea, bronchi, and lungs. These structures are responsible for exchanging
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the bloodstream.
● Respiratory Zone:includes the bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
These structures are where gas exchange takes place between the air and
the bloodstream.
● The main organs of respiratory system are꞉·Nose
· Nasal Cavity
· Pharynx
· Larynx
· Trachea
· Bronchi
· Lungs
● The larynx, commonly known as the voice
· Larynx
box, is a complex structure located in the
neck at the top of the trachea (windpipe)
and below the pharynx. It serves several
important functions related to respiration,
phonation (production of sound), and
protection of the airway.
● The larynx is a complex anatomical
structure with multiple functions,
including respiration, phonation, and
protection of the airway. Its intricate
design and coordinated muscular actions
are essential for proper breathing, speech
production, and safeguarding the
respiratory system.
 Structure

● The larynx is composed of cartilage, muscles, and connective tissue.

● It is shaped like a triangular box and is typically larger in males than in females,
which contributes to differences in voice pitch between genders.
● The largest cartilage of the larynx is the thyroid cartilage, which forms the
prominent protrusion in the front of the neck known as the Adam's apple.
● Within the larynx are the vocal cords (also called vocal folds), which are elastic
bands of tissue stretched across the interior. These cords vibrate when air
passes through them, producing sound.
● Other important cartilages of the larynx include the cricoid cartilage, arytenoid
cartilages, and epiglottis.
 Functions:

● Respiratory Function: The larynx serves as a passageway for

air during breathing. It is situated at the top of the trachea
and functions to ensure that air enters the trachea and lungs
while preventing foreign objects, such as food and liquid, from
entering the airway. This protective function is aided by the
epiglottis, a flap-like structure that covers the opening of the
larynx during swallowing.
● Phonation (Sound Production): The larynx is crucial for the
production of sound, including speech and singing. The vocal
cords within the larynx vibrate as air passes through them,
producing sound waves.
The pitch and volume of the sound are controlled by the tension
and position of the vocal cords, which are regulated by muscles
within the larynx.
● Protection of the Airway: The larynx houses various structures
that play a role in protecting the airway, including the epiglottis,
which prevents food and liquid from entering the trachea during
swallowing, and the cough reflex, which helps to expel foreign
particles or irritants from the respiratory tract.
 Nose
● The nose is a prominent facial feature and a
crucial part of the respiratory system in
humans and many animals. It is primarily
responsible for the sense of smell (olfaction)
and also plays a vital role in breathing and
filtering the air we inhale.
● the nose is a multifunctional organ essential for
both sensory perception and respiratory
function. Its structure and functions contribute
significantly to our overall health and well-
being.
Functions of the nose include:

● Olfaction: The nose contains

olfactory receptors that detect odors
and send signals to the brain, allowing
us to perceive smells.
● Respiration: Air enters the body
through the nose during breathing.
The nasal passages warm and
humidify the air, making it more
comfortable for the lungs. Filtering
mechanisms in the nose also help
remove particles and pathogens from
the air.
● Speech: The nasal cavity and sinuses
play a role in shaping the resonance of
the voice during speech.
Nasal Cavity
● The nasal cavity is a hollow space within
the nose that extends from the nostrils (the
openings at the front of the nose) to the
nasopharynx (the upper part of the throat).
It serves several important functions
related to respiration, olfaction (sense of
smell), and immune defense.
 Structure

The nasal cavity is lined with a mucous membrane called the

respiratory epithelium, which contains numerous goblet cells and
cilia.
● The nasal cavity is divided into two halves by the nasal
septum, a partition made of cartilage and bone.
● Inside the nasal cavity, there are three bony structures called
nasal conchae (or turbinates): the superior, middle, and
inferior conchae. These structures increase the surface area of
the nasal passages and help to warm, humidify, and filter the
air as it passes through.
 Functions:

● Air Conditioning: The nasal cavity acts as a passage for air

entering and leaving the respiratory system. As air passes
through the nasal cavity, it is warmed to body temperature
and humidified, making it more comfortable for the delicate
tissues of the respiratory tract.
● Filtration: The nasal cavity contains tiny hairs called cilia and
mucus-producing goblet cells. These structures work together
to trap and remove particles such as dust, pollen, bacteria,
and other foreign substances from the air, helping to prevent
them from reaching the lungs.
● Olfaction: The olfactory receptors responsible for the sense of
smell are located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. As air
containing odor molecules passes over these receptors, they
detect the smells and send signals to the brain for
interpretation.
● Resonance: The nasal cavity and sinuses play a role in shaping
the resonance of the voice during speech.
● Immune Defense: The mucus lining the nasal cavity contains
antibodies and other immune factors that help to neutralize
pathogens and prevent infections.
● The pharynx is a muscular tube-shaped
structure located behind the nasal cavity,
mouth, and larynx (voice box) in the
throat. It serves as a common passageway
for both air and food, playing a crucial role
in both the respiratory and digestive
systems.
● The pharynx is a vital anatomical structure
that serves as a passageway for both air
and food, facilitating respiration,
swallowing, and immune defense. Its
complex structure and functions contribute
to the proper functioning of both the
respiratory and digestive systems.
Structure:

● The pharynx is divided into three main regions,

based on its location within the throat:
● Nasopharynx: Located behind the nasal cavity,
the nasopharynx serves as a passageway for air
during breathing. It contains the openings of the
Eustachian tubes, which connect the middle ear to
the nasopharynx and help equalize air pressure.
● Oropharynx: Situated behind the mouth, the
oropharynx serves as a common pathway for both
air and food. It contains the palatine tonsils and
the base of the tongue.
● Laryngopharynx: Positioned behind the larynx
(voice box) and extending downward to the
opening of the esophagus, the laryngopharynx
serves as a passage for both air and food. It is the
most inferior part of the pharynx and is involved
in the process of swallowing.
 Functions:

● Respiratory Function: The pharynx serves as a conduit for air during

breathing. Air passes through the nasopharynx and oropharynx before
reaching the larynx and trachea (windpipe). The structure of the pharynx,
particularly the soft palate and the epiglottis, helps to prevent food and
liquids from entering the airway during breathing.
● Digestive Function: In addition to its role in respiration, the pharynx is also
involved in the process of swallowing (deglutition). During swallowing, the
muscles of the pharynx contract to propel food from the mouth into the
esophagus, which leads to the stomach for digestion.
● Immune Function: The pharynx contains lymphoid tissue, including the
tonsils, which play a role in the immune defense system by helping to trap
and remove pathogens (such as bacteria and viruses) that enter the body
through the nose and mouth.
 pleura is a double-layered serous
membrane that covers each lung and
PLEURA

lines the thoracic cage.

Types of pleura
 parietal pleura
 visceral pleura

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Parietal pleura: The parietal pleura is the outer layer of the pleura, which lines the
chest wall and diaphragm. It’s like a protective membrane that wraps around the
lungs, providing support and allowing them to move smoothly during breathing.

● Parts of the parietal pleura

 Diaphragmatic
 Mediastinal
 Costal, and Cervical (copula)
● t also encloses the great vessels running to the lung root
● Projects into the root of the neck as the copula
 ● visceral pleura: The visceral pleura is the inner layer of the pleura, directly
covering the surface of the lungs.
during inhalationthe visceral pleura allows the lungs to expand and contract
smoothly within the thoracic cavity. 🫁💡

 Covers surfaces and fissures of lungs

 Firmly adherent to lung
 Provides a moistened and lubricated surface for lung movement
 Adhesions with the parietal pleura may result from infections, inflammatory
reactions and lung immobility
 Diaphragmatic
pleura
 Costal
 Mediastinal and
 Cervical
 Innervation and blood supply of the pleura

 Parietal pleura
 Cervical, costal and peripheral diaphragmatic portion - intercostal
nerves and vessels
 Central portion of diaphragmatic and mediastinal – phrenic nerve
and internal thoracic & musculophrenic vessels
 Sensitive to pain
 Visceral pleura : Sympathetic nerves derived from T4 & T5
 insensitive to pain
 vasculature and lymphatics (Bronchial vessels )
 LUNG
Shape and Features:
Both lungs are conical in shape.
They have the following features:
Apex: Located at the upper end.
Base: Rests on the diaphragm.
Borders: The lungs have three borders: anterior, posterior, and inferior.
Surfaces: There are two surfaces:
Costal surface: Faces the ribs.
Medial surface: Divides into vertebral and mediastinal parts1.
25
 Borders

 Inferior: Separates the base from costal and medial

surfaces
 Anterior: Right vertical and left shows wide cardiac notch
 Posterior :
 Correspond to medial margins of head of ribs
 Extends from 7 cervical spine to 10 thoracic spine
 Apex

 lie above anterior end of first rib

 Extending 1 inch above the medial 1/3 of clavicle
 Anteriorly grooved with subclavian artery
 Covered by cervical pleura and suprapleural membrane
 Base (diaphragmatic surface)

 Rests on diaphragm
○ Separates the right lung from right lobe of liver
○ left lung from fundus of stomach

 It is found at the level of

 the 6th costal cartilage in the mid-clavicular line
 the 8th costal cartilage in the mid-axillary line
 Rib 10 dorsally

● Due to the position of the liver, the base of the right lung is
broader than left lung
 Surfaces

Medial surface : has vertebral and mediastinal parts

 The vertebral part: posterior; round occupying the thoracic gutters

 The mediastinal part: lies anterior to the vertebral column.

○ It contains the hilum of the lung

Costal surface: Adjacent to sternum, costal cartilages and ribs

The root of the lung

• Formed by structures which leave or enter the lung at hilum

• Lie at level of T5-T7
Contents
Bronchus: posterior
 Left: divide after entering, only one
 Right: divide before entering: epiarterial & hyparterial
Pulmonary artery
 On the left: more anterior and higher
 On the right: between eparterial and hyparterial
 ● Right lung

Location:
The right lung is located on the right side of the heart, near the backbone.

Structure:
Lobes: The right lung consists of three lobes: superior, middle, and inferior.
Shape: It is wider and shorter than the left lung.
Fissures: These lobes are separated by two fissures.
has 2 fissures

Horizontal fissure
 From anterior border of right lung at 4th costal cartilage
to meet the oblique fissure at mid axillary line
Oblique fissure
 extend from the level of 4th/5th thoracic vertebra
posteriorly to the diaphragm anteriorly and inferiorly
 left lung

 Location: The left lung is situated on the left side of the heart, adjacent to the

backbone.

 Structure:

Lobes: The left lung has two lobes: upper and lower.

Shape: It is narrower and longer than the right lung.

Fissure: The lobes are separated by a single fi

large cardiac notch found on the mediastinal surface

 The lingula - an anterior projection of the superior lobe below cardiac notch overlies

the anterior aspect of the heart

 Conducting Zone of
the Bronchial tree ●Explanation
● A primary bronchus is a passage or
primary bronchus airway in the lower respiratory tract
that conducts air into the lungs
• are formed by the division of the ● It is the first or primary bronchi to
branch from the trachea at the carina.
trachea at the level of T4 in the The primary bronchi are the widest
mediastinum portions of the bronchi and branch
into smaller tubes that become
the posterior basal segment is most bronchioles.
● The main function of the primary
likely bronchi is to carry oxygen-rich air
reach the lungs during inhalation and
let carbon dioxide-rich air out of the
lungs and into the trachea on its way
out during exhalation5.
Lobar bronchi

• Each primary bronchus enters the hilus of the

lung and divides into secondary or lobar
bronchi
● Right – 3; upper, middle & lower
● Left - 2; upper & lower
• Divide into the tertiary or segmental bronchi
which supply bronchopulmonary segments
of the lung
• The tertiary bronchus is joined by a tertiary
division of the pulmonary artery
Lobar Bronchi
Lobar Bronchi (Secondary Bronchi):
Lobar bronchi are the first major subdivisions of the main bronchi.
They deliver air to specific lobes of the lungs.
Also known as secondary or intermediate bronchi.
Lined by cartilage rings for structural support.
Each lobar bronchus ends at the point where it subdivides into tertiary (segmental) bronchi.

• Right Lung Lobar Bronchi:

The right lung has three lobar bronchi, each supplying a specific lobe:
Superior lobar bronchus: Supplies the superior lobe of the right lung.
Middle lobar bronchus: Supplies the middle lobe of the right lung.
Inferior lobar bronchus: Supplies the inferior lobe of the right lung.

• Left Lung Lobar Bronchi:

The left lung has two lobar bronchi, each supplying a specific lobe:
Superior lobar bronchus: Supplies the superior lobe of the left lung.
Inferior lobar bronchus: Supplies the inferior lobe of the left lung.

37
12/19/2024 38
 Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
● Definition:
○ Tertiary bronchi are the third generation of bronchi within the respiratory tree.
○ They arise from the secondary bronchi (also called lobar bronchi).
● Structure:
○ The respiratory epithelium lines the lumen of tertiary bronchi.
○ Surrounding this lining is a layer of smooth muscle.
○ Interestingly, this smooth muscle layer consists of two ribbons that spiral in opposite
directions.
● Branching Pattern:
○ Primary bronchi (left and right bronchus) give rise to secondary bronchi.
○ Secondary bronchi further divide into tertiary bronchi (segmental bronchi).
○ These segmental bronchi then continue branching into smaller structures.

Right (10) and Left (9)

● Right superior lobar bronchi - apical, posterior and anterior tertiary bronchi
● Left superior lobar- apicoposterior, anterior, superior lingular and inferior lingular segmental bronchi
● Right middle lobar - medial and lateral tertiary bronchi
● Right and left inferior lobar- superior, medial basal, lateral basal, anterior basal and posterior basal
segmental bronchi
 Bronchopulmonary
segments
• pyramidal section of a lung
served with one tertiary
bronchus
• base toward visceral
pleura & apex toward
hilum
• Each segment is surrounded
by connective tissue;
independent respiratory units
 Alveolar ducts

• The ducts lead into terminal

clusters of alveoli called alveolar
sacs
• Each alveolar duct gives 5-6
alveolar sacs which give rise to
alveoli
• Wall: smooth muscle cells +
collagen and elastic fibers
• Lined by squamous alveolar cells
 Alveolus
● Definition:
○ Alveoli are tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs located at the end of the bronchioles (branch-like tubes) in
the lungs.
○ They play a crucial role in gas exchange by moving oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO₂) molecules into and
out of the bloodstream.
● Structure:
○ Each alveolus is approximately 0.2 to 0.5 mm in diameter.
○ In the average adult lung, there are about 480 million alveoli, with a total average surface area of
around 75 square meters.
○ Alveoli are often compared to the appearance of a raspberry or a “bunch of grapes.”
○ Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood capillaries supplied by small branches of the
pulmonary artery.
○ The respiratory membrane, which separates alveolar air from blood, consists of the squamous alveolar
cell, squamous endothelial cell of the capillary, and their shared basement membrane.
Cell Types:
○ Type I Pneumocytes:
■ These thin, broad cells cover about 95% of the alveolar surface.
■ They allow efficient gas exchange.
○ Type II Pneumocytes:
■ Responsible for repairing alveolar epithelium.
■ Secrete pulmonary surfactant, which reduces surface tension and prevents alveoli from collapsing.
○ Alveolar Macrophages:
■ Clear debris and foreign particles within the alveoli.
Blood supply of the Lungs: Pulmonary arteries
● Two in number; one for each lung
● derived from the bifurcated pulmonary trunk
● Carry poorly oxygenated blood to lungs for
oxygenation
● The right pulmonary artery is crossed over
by the azygos vein
● The left pulmonary artery is crossed over by
the arch of the aorta at T5
● Divide into lobar branches, then segmental
branches , the tertiary bronchi in the
bronchopulmonary segments

Segmental bronchus, artery and vein

 Bronchial Artery

● Supply blood to root of lungs, supporting tissue and visceral pleura

• Origin
 Right –3rd right posterior intercostal / upper left bronchial / superior posterior intercostal
 Left – two; thoracic aorta
• Supply bronchial tree to respiratory bronchioles
Bronchial veins
• Drain only regions supplied by bronchial arteries
• Termination
 Right – azygos
 Left – accessory hemiazygos/ left superior intercostal vein
 Pulmonary veins

● Begin from pulmonary capillaries veins join into larger veins

○ drain into intrasegmental veins
○ drain into intersegmental veins
○ form pulmonary veins
● Upper right vein - from the superior and middle lobe of the right lung
● Upper left vein - from the superior lobe of the left lung
● The pulmonary veins also drain oxygenated blood supplied to the lungs by the bronchial arteries
Lymphatic drainage of the Lungs

● Bronchopulmonary lymph nodes

○ Superficial: from the superficial part of the lung
○ Deep: drain bronchial tree, vessels and lung tissue
● Tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes: superior and inferior located at the bifurcation of trachea
● Both nodes drains into broncho-mediastinal lymphatic duct
○ Right – right lymphatic duct
○ Left – thoracic duct
Nerves of the Lungs
● Parasympathetic fibers are preganglionic vagal
■ Secretomotor to glands in the bronchial mucosa
■ Motor to bronchial smooth muscles – spasm
■ Sensory : Vasodilator to bronchial and pulmonary vessels
● Sympathetic fibers are postganglionic fibers from T2-T5
■ vasomotor to arterial system (vasoconstriction)
■ Bronchodilator
■ Inhibitory to bronchial glands
Thoracic
wall
● The thoracic, consists of a skeletal framework, fascia, muscles,
and neurovasculature – all connected together to form a
strong and protective yet flexible cage.
● The thorax has two major openings:
 the superior thoracic aperture found superiorly and
 the inferior thoracic aperture located inferiorly
● The superior thoracic aperture opens towards
the neck. It is bounded by the bones of the
upper thorax, manubrium of sternum, the first
pair of ribs, and the body of the vertebra T1.
The inferior thoracic aperture is almost completely covered by
the diaphragm, separating it from the abdominal cavity.
The thoracic wall consists of a bony framework that is held
together by twelve thoracic vertebrae posteriorly which give rise
to ribs that encircle the lateral and anterior thoracic cavity. The
first nine ribs curve around the lateral thoracic wall and connect
to the manubrium and sternum
 The thoracic skeleton:

● It is made up of the sternum, twelve pairs of ribs,

twelve thoracic vertebrae, and interconnecting joints.
 Ribs
● True Ribs (1-7): Attach directly to
the sternum via their costal
cartilages.
● False Ribs (8-10): Attach to the
sternum indirectly through the
cartilage of the ribs above.
● Floating Ribs (11-12): Do not attach
to the sternum at all; they end in
the posterior abdominal
musculature.
 Sternum

● Manubrium: The upper part of the

sternum that articulates with the
clavicles and the first two ribs.
● - Body: The middle, elongated part
that articulates with the costal
cartilages of ribs 2-7.
● - Xiphoid Process: The small,
cartilaginous lower tip of the
sternum, which ossifies in adults.
 Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)

● Each rib articulates posteriorly with a corresponding thoracic vertebra at two

points: the costovertebral and costotransverse joints.
 Thoracic joints

● The main thoracic joints include

the intervertebral discs
costovertebral
sternocostal
sternoclavicular
costochstondral
interchondral joints
 Muscles of the thoracic wall:

● Running between every two adjacent ribs are anatomical spaces

called intercostal spaces. There are eleven in total, each one containing
the intercostal muscles (external, internal, and innermost) together with
the intercostal neurovascular bundle. This consists of the intercostal vein, artery,
and nerve.
 External intercostal muscle.

● The most superficial layer is the external intercostal

muscle. The external intercostal muscles extend
posteriorly from the rib tubercle to the costochondral
junction anteriorly, where the anterior (external)
intercostal membrane takes the place of the muscle
fibers. It aids in elevating the ribs during inhalation.
 Internal intercostal muscle

● The internal intercostal muscle forms the intermediate layer.

This muscle extends anteriorly from the sternum to the rib
cage posteriorly, where the muscle fibers are replaced by
the posterior (internal) intercostal membrane. It helps in
depressing the ribs during forced exhalation.
 Innermost intercostal muscle

● The innermost intercostal muscle forms the deepest layer and is lined internally
by the endothoracic fascia, which in turn is lined internally by the parietal pleura.
It assists in stabilizing the intercostal spaces during breathing.
 Diaphragm

● A dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity and is the primary muscle responsible for inspiration.
 Thoracic cavity

● The thoracic cavity subdivides into three compartments; the mediastinum and
two pleural cavities, one on each side.
● The mediastinum is the median compartment containing the heart and great
vessels, whereas the pleural cavities house the lungs.
 Thoracic cage

● The thoracic cage protects the lungs and the heart and provides attachments for
the muscles of the thorax, upper extremities, back, and abdomen. The thoracic
cage communicates superiorly with the neck via the thoracic outlet and inferiorly
separates the abdomen by the respiratory diaphragm.
● Thoracic outlet syndrome
(TOS) is a condition in which
there is compression of the
nerves, arteries, or veins in
the superior thoracic
aperture, the passageway
from the lower neck to the
armpit, also known as the
thoracic outlet.
 Connective Tissues and Membranes

● Endothoracic Fascia: A layer of connective tissue lining the

internal surface of the thoracic wall.
● Parietal Pleura: The outer membrane lining the thoracic
cavity.
● Visceral Pleura: The inner membrane covering the lungs.
● Pleural Cavity: The space between the parietal and visceral
pleura, containing a small amount of lubricating fluid.
● The thoracic wall is primarily innervated by the intercostal
nerves, which are the anterior rami of spinal nerves of T1-T11,
and the anterior ramus of T12 is a subcostal nerve. Each
intercostal nerve supplies a dermatome and a myotome. Only
the anterior ramus of T1 forms the lower trunk of the brachial
plexus; the remaining intercostals do not form a plexus.
 Functions of the Thoracic Wall

● Protection: Provides a rigid yet flexible shield for the heart,

lungs, and major blood vessels against physical trauma.
● Support: Serves as an attachment point for muscles involved
in respiration, upper limb movement, and posture
maintenance.
 Functions of the Thoracic Wall

● Respiration: Facilitates breathing by allowing the expansion

and contraction of the chest cavity, primarily driven by the
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
● Structural Integrity: Maintains the shape and stability of the
thoracic cavity, ensuring the organs remain in their correct
positions.