Chapter Three

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

1
Outline of
Presentation
 Introduction

 Power angle curve

 Dynamics Of Synchronous Machine

 Swing equation

 Analysis of steady state stability

 Equal Area Criterion

 Methods of improving stability

2
Introduction

 A large power system consists of a number of synchronous

machines (or equipments or components) operating in synchronism.
 When the system is subjected to some form of disturbance, there is
a tendency for the system to develop forces to bring it to a
normal or stable condition
 The term stability refers to stable operation of the
synchronous machines connected to a power system when they
are subjected to sudden disturbances.
 Depending on the nature and magnitude of disturbances the
stability studies can be classified in to the following types
1. Steady state stability
2. Transient stability

3
Introduction
(contd…)

POWER SYSTEM
STABILITY

Steady state
stability Transient state
stability

Static Dynamic
stability Stability

4
Introduction
(contd…)
Steady state stability : It is defined as the ability of a
power system to remain stable (i.e., without losing
synchronism) for small disturbances ( gradual changes in
load).
 Static stability refers to inherent stability that prevails
without the aid of automatic control devices
 Dynamic stability refers to artificial stability given to
an inherently unstable system by automatic control devices.
It is concerned with small disturbances lasting for 10 to 30
sec.

The transient stability is defined as the ability of a

power system to remain stable for large disturbances. (such as
sudden change in loads, loss of generations, excitations,
transmission facilities, switching operations and faults). 5
Power Angle
Curve

EV 2
Pe  jQe sin δ  j E V cos δ  V ........( 3)
Xd X X
  d d

EV 
 Pe=Real Power of sin δ .........
(S)= X s (4)

Thus, the real power output depends on and power angle

δ.

6
 Power Angle Curve
(contd…)
 Plotting
(4)

 As δ is increased beyond 900 ,Pe decreases .

 At δ=1800, Pe becomes zero.

 Beyond δ=1800 ,Pe becomes negative which implies that the

power flow direction is reversed and the power is supplied from

the infinite bus to the generator.
 The positive value of δ (E leading V) applies to generator action and
negative value for δ (E lagging V) applies to the motor action.

7
Power Angle Curve
(contd…)
 The max steady-state power transfer occurs when
δ=90;
EV
P max ..................(5)
 X
The value of Pe,max is called the pull-out or steady-state stability limit.

 In actual practice δ is kept round 300

 When the power angle δ increases by a small amount Δδ.
The increase in synchronous power output is given by

E V
Pr  P  P  cos δ ………………….(6)
d
δ δ
Where
X
Pr synchronizing power coefficient

 In terms of ABCD parameters, power angle equation can be written

as
EV AV 2
  sin(β  α )...............(7)
Pmax B B

8
Power Angle Curve
(contd…)
Case (ii): Generator connected to Infinite
bus.

EV
The real power output of this system Pe sin δ  Pmax sin δ ........
X
is  (8)
The maximum steady state power transfer Pmax occurs when ,δ=900
and
equals EV

to X EV
 Pmax  X ..........
(9)
Transfer reactance(x): The total reactance X between two
voltage sources V and E is called the transfer reactance. The
maximum power limit is inversely proportional to the transfer
reactance.
9
Power Angle Curve
(contd…)
Case (iii) :Power transfer through Impedance
 In all electrical machines and transmission lines, the resistance
is negligible as compared to inductive reactance.
 Active power received by infinite bus is given by

V2 V 2R
 2 ........(10)
Pe,max  X2 R  2

R2
X
For Pe,max to be maximum (i.e. for max. power transfer), the
above equation is to be differentiated w.r.t ‘ X’

X  3R.......(11)
 The practical application of (11) is limited. It that if X=0,

power transferred is zero. Thus a finite value of reactance is

necessary for power transfer.

10
 Worked Example 1

The angle δ in the swing equation of a synchronous generator is

A) Angle between stator voltage and current.

B) Angular displacement of stator with respect to rotor.

C) The angular displacement mmf with respect to a

synchronously rotating axis.

D) Angular displacement of an axis field to the rotor with respect to a

synchronously rotating axis.

Sol. D

11
 Worked Example 2

in the single machine infinite bus system shown bellow ,

the generator is delivering real power of 0.8 pu at 0.8 p.f lagging
To the infinite bus. The power angle of the generator in degree is
--------

12
 Worked Example 3

a transmission line has a series reactance of 0.2 p.u reactive power

compensation is applied at the midpoint of the line and it is controlled such
that the midpoint voltage of the transmission line is always maintained at 0.98
pu. If voltage at both end of the line are maintained at 1 pu., then the steady
state power transfer limit of the transmission line is -----

E
P max X /
V 2

13
Methods of Improving Steady State Stability
Limit
 The stability limit is the max. power that can be
transferred in a network between source and load without
loss of synchronism.
• The steady state stability limit is the max. power that
can be transferred without the system becoming
unstable, when the load is increased gradually, under
steady state condition.
• Transient stability limit is the max. power that can be
transferred with out the system becoming unstable when
a sudden or large disturbance occurs.
 The transient stability is lower than the steady-state stability.
Methods of Improving Steady State Stability
Limit
 The steady state limit is given by SSSL=  X
E
P max V

where X is Transfer reactance.

 Methods to improve SSSL are

1. Operating the system at higher Voltages

2. Reducing the nett reactance of the system
by
• Parallel lines

• Mid point compensation

• Series capacitors

• Double circuit

• Bundle conductors

•
Dynamics of synchronous
machine

1
KE  2 Mωs ...........(12)

ωs   Pωsm  rotor speed in rad (elec) /

2
sec 2
2
M  J    ωs 10 6
P

H
M sec2 / elec  rad............(13)
 180 f
 Swing
Equation
 Thebehavior of a synchronous machine during
transients is described as swing equation.
Let,
J = Total moment of inertia of the rotor mass in kg - m2
θm= Angular displacement of the rotor with respect to a stationary
axis in mechanical radians.
t = Time, in seconds.
Tm= The mechanical (or) shaft torques in N-m.
Te= Net electrical (or) electromagnetic torque in N -
m. Ta= Net accelerating torque in N - m.
 Under steady state

conditions, Te = Tm , N =

constant
17
 Swing equation
(contd…)

d 2θ
Ta  m
..........
J dt 2 (15 )

Swing d 2δ
 Pm  Pe .......(18)
Equation M ( p.u ) dt 2

18
Swing equation
(contd…)

δ1  δ 2

δ

19
Swing equation
(contd…)
 The two machines swing coherently are thus reduced to a
single
machine
as H eq  H1mach G1mach H 2mach G2mach
G sys  G sys ............(21)
 The above results are easily extendable to any no. of
machines swinging coherently.
 Swing Curve: The graph between load angle and time is
called Swing Curve.
 If δ increases continuously with time the system is unstable.
if δ starts decreasing after
reaching a maximum value it is
said that the system will remain
stable.
Analysis Of Steady State
Stability
 It is determined based on SSSL with
power

input, Pm remaining same.

 Let us assume that the electrical

power output increases by a small

small amount
Δδ.
amount ΔP.the new value of torque angle is (δ
Therefore 0+Δδ)

 Now the torque angle is changed

 The electrical power output for this new torque angle (δ0+Δδ)
by a
is given by P 1  P  P  P sin(δ  δ ) ..........(22)
 Since Δδ is small  P  Pmax sin δ 0  Pmax δ cosδ 0 ........
P
(23)
 ΔP=(Pe0max cos δ0 )…………...(24)

21
Analysis Of Steady State
Stability(Contd…)
P  Pe 
  Pmax cos δ0  δ  0 ..........(25)
δ
For a torque angle of δ=δ0+Δδ,

M d2 δ 0  δ P m  (Pe0 
dt
P)
Since δ0 is constant and Pm=Pe0,
d2
M  P
δ2
dt
Further solving, we obtain the following differential equation
d 2
M δ   P cos δ δ 
0 max
0
dt
Let d cos δ0 
M dt δ   x , max c
 P 
P  Pmax
cosδ   e
0  δ
 x  0
.............(26)
 M  M

22
Analysis Of Steady State
Stability(Contd…)
 P 
Case (i) : When C is +ve( i.e.
   0 or Pmax
e

δ  0
cosδ0>0)
 Roots are purely imaginary and conjugate.
 The system behavior is oscillatory about
δ0.
Case (ii) : When C is –ve  P   0 or Pmax
e
 
(i.e δ 
 The roots are real and equal in cosδ 0<0)
0

magnitude.
 One of the root is +ve and other is –ve.

 Due to the +ve root the torque angle increases without bound.

 When there is a small increment in power and machine will

loose synchronism. Hence the machine becomes unstable
for small changes in power provided.

23
Analysis Of Steady State
Stability(Contd…)

 Pe 
  δ  is known as synchronizing coefficient. This is also
0

called
stiffness of synchronous machine.
Assumptions
• Generators are represented by constant impedances in
series with no load voltages.
• The mechanical power input is constant.
• Damping is negligible.
• Load angle variations are small.
• Speed variations are negligible.

24
Transient
stability
Transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system becoming unstable when a sudden
or large disturbance occurs.
Assumptions:
• In transmissions line & synchronous machine resistance is
neglected.
• Damping term contributed by synchronous machine damper
winding is neglected.
• Rotor speed is assumed to be synchronous.
• Mechanical power input to machine remains constant.
• Voltage behind transient reactance is assumed remains constant.
• Loads are modelled as constant admittances.

25
Transient
stability(Contd….)
The transient stability can be analysed by following methods
i) Equal Area criterion.
ii) Point by point method
iii) Runga-Kutta method
Equal area criterion
The stability of a single machine connected to
an infinite bus can be studied by the use of equal area
criterion.
 If Pe1=Pe0+∆P then the accelerating power Pa decreases
from ∆P
(when δ =δ0) to zero (when δ =δ1).
 During the time taken by the load angle to increase
from δ0 to
δ1, the rotor absorbs KE. This KE equals to the shaded 26
Equal Area
criterion

 The load angle δ 2 can be obtained from the condition that the

KE gained by rotor during its swing from δ 0 to δ 1 must equal

to KE returned as it swing from δ 1 to δ 2.
 This leads to conclusion that area A1 must be equal to shaded

area A2. This is referred as equal area criterion.

27
Mathematical way of expressing Equal area
Criterion
 Multiplying eq (18)  dδ  and integrating, we
2 
by dt  get.
δ
dδ  2 P a

dδ ...........(27)
δ 0

dt M
For a stable system (i.e. the load angle will have minimum
dδ
value when  0)
dt δ

i.e.  Pa dδ 
δ
0 0

 This refers to zero area, which is possible only where pa has

both accelerating and decelerating power that is for, pm>pe

and for the other part pe>pm
 For the generator action Pm>Pe for positive area A1 and Pe>Pm

for negative area A2 for stable operation.

28
Sudden change in Mechanical
Input
 Let the mechanical input to the generator

rotor be suddenly increased to Pm1.

 Since Pm1>Pe the generator will have

Pa=Pm1-Pe
 In this new steady state Pm1 = Pe1

.ˆ. Pm1 = Pe1 = Pmax sinδ1

 The areas A1 and A2 can be evaluated as

δ1

A1 δ (Pm1 
0
………….(28)
δ1
Pe )dδ

A2   (Pe 
Pm1 )dδ
δ 2

29
Sudden change in Mechanical Input
(Contd…)
 As pm increases, a limiting condition is finally reached
at a

point where the area A1=A2.

 The corresponding δ1 can be δ1max and δ2 be δ2max.

 Here δ2max = π – δ1max

 Since  Pm1,max 
δ1 ,max  sin1  P 
 max 

δ 2 max    Pm1,max  
1 

sin  Pmax 

30
Critical clearing angle & Critical clearing
time
 Critical clearing angle (δcc): It is the maximum
allowable change in the power angle δ, before clearing the
fault, without loss of synchronism.
 P a 1  Pm 
δ δ δ  cos cos δ max P (δ  δ 0 )..............(29)
t2M
2  max 
0 cc
 Critical clearing max
time(tcc): It can be defined as the
maximum time delay that can be allowed to clear the fault
synchronism.
without loss of 2H (δ cc  δ 0)
t cc  .................(30)
 fPm

 If the actual clearing angle is greater than the Critical

clearing angle, the system is unstable, otherwise it is
stable.

31
Sudden Loss of one of the parallel
line
 When both of the lines are operating the power
transfer EV
is given by e1  sin δ  Pmax I sin δ .........
X X
P Xd  1 2 (31)
X1  X
1

 When one of the lines is switched out the transfer

reactance
increases and the transfer is given
power EV by
Pe2 sin δ  max II
 X d1  1 P
sin δ ..............(32)
X
 Pmax I  Pmax II

 The maximum value which can attain

without

loss of system stability is δm and equals

to (π-δ1) radians.
32
Fault and Subsequent circuit
isolation
 When fault develops at any point F on line2 it is
subsequently cleared by cleared by opening the CBS at
both the ends of faulted line.
 3 power angle curves are involved,

• first for the pre fault system,

• second for the system during fault and

• third for the system after the fault line

 If actual clearing δc < δcc system is stable,

 If δc > δcc the system is unstable.

 When δc = δcc the maximum angle up to which rotor swings

is

δmax
33
Fault and Subsequent circuit
isolation(Contd….)
An expression for δcc can be derived
as
δcc  1  Pm
 max δ 0)  Pmax III cosδ max  Pmax II cosδcc 
( δ Pmax III  P max II .........(33)
cos

Where
, δ max     Pm 
1  δ0   Pm 
1 

sin  Pmax III  sin  Pmax I 

34
Fault, Circuit isolation and
reclosing
 The transmission lines are provided with automatic quick
reclosing circuit breakers, because most of the faults are
transient in nature
 When fault occurs, operation shifts to curve for faulted condition.

 When the load angle is δc, the faulted line is isolated and

the operation shifts to the post fault curve.

 When the load angle is δ0 the circuit breaker reclose and

operation shifts to pre-fault curve.

 For stable operation the accelerating area A1 = decelerating area
A2.

 The maximum angle to which rotor swings is δ2 and is less than

δm (i.e the maximum permissible rotor swing if stability is to

be maintained).
35
Solution of swing equation by point by point
method
 Point by point (or step by step) method is the most feasible
and widely used way of solving the swing equations.
 The main assumption for solving the swing equation by point
by point method is "the accelerating power is constant during
time interval" .
 Integrating swing equation twice, w.r.t. time’t’,

 After 1st integration,dtdδ ω  0 P

 Ma .......(34)
P
ω
After 2 nd integration,δ  δ 0  ω0 a ........(35)
2M
t
 Dividing the total time 't' into 'n' equal
intervals.
t δn  δn1  (t) 2
ωn  ω
n1 
M Pa .........(36)
n1 n1  2M Pan1 ..........(37)
t.ω

36
Solution of swing equation by point by point
method(Contd….)
 The increments of speed and angular displacement
during the nth interval
ωn  n  ωn1
 M
t
Pa n1 ...........(38)
ω
δn  (t) 2 (Pan1  Pan2 )...........(39)
n1  2M
δ

37
Methods of improving
stability
 By increasing inertia constant(M)

 Increasing system voltage

 Reduction of transfer reactance

• Use of double circuit lines

• Use of Bundle conductors
• Series compensation of the lines
 Fast switching
 Turbine fast valving ( or) By-pass
valving
 Single –pole switching
 Load shedding
 HVDC links

 Breaking resistors
38
Methods of improving stability
(Contd…..)
 Short circuit current limiters

 Full load rejection

technique

39
 Worked Example

Q.no.4) a 500MW, 21 KV, 50 Hz, 3 –phase synchronous generator having rated

p.f= 0.9 , hase a moment of inertia 27500 kg . Find the inertia constant H

40
 Worked Example
Q. No.5) A lossless single machine infinite bus power system
is shown in the fig. The synchronous generator transfers 1.0pu
of power to infinite bus. The critical clearing time of circuit
braker is
0.28 s. If another identical synchronous generator is connected
in parallel to the existing generator and each generator is
scheduled to supply 0.5pu of power, the critical clearing time
of the circuit breaker will be
Sol. d

δ2
M ( p.u ) 2dt
Pa

Pe= 0 during fault (Electrical power

delivered )
d 2δ Pa 2
Pa / δ t 
dt 2
 2M A;
M;

41
Worked Example

𝛿=
Pa 𝛿o
δ0
 2M (0) 

2H (Aδcc  δ0 )
tcc
  fPm

42
Worked Example

43
Worked Example

Q. No.6) The figure shows single line diagram of power

system with a double circuit transmission line. The
expression for electrical power is 1.5 sin𝛿 , where 𝛿 is
the rotor angle. The system is operating at the stable
equilibrium point with mechanical power 1 pu. If one of the
transmission line circuits is removed, the maximum value of 𝛿,
as the rotor swings is 1.221 radian. If the expression for
electrical power with one transmission line circuit removed
is Pmaxsin𝛿, the value of Pmax in pu is ___

Sol)

Continued in the next

page.

44
Worked Example

δ1 δ2

(P s  Pe 2 )dδ   (Ps  Pe2 )dδ

0
δ0 δ1

45
Worked Example

46
Worked Example

47
Previous years GATE
Questions

48
Previous years GATE
Questions

49
Worked Example

50
Worked Example

51