19EEE401 Power System

Protection and Switchgear

Relay Construction & Operating Principles
Electromechanical Relays
• Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces
generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic or electro-
thermic forces created by the input quantities.
• The mechanical force results in physical movement of the
moving part which closes the contacts of the relay for its
operation.
• mechanical force is generated due to the flow of an electric
current, the term ‘electromechanical relay’ is used.
• uses either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic
induction principle.
• Attracted armature types
• Induction types
• Thermal relays based upon the forces created by expansion of
metals caused by temperature rise due to flow of current.
 Electromechanical-Attracted Armature Relays
• Relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an
electromagnet or through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid.
• use electromagnetic attraction principle for their operation.
• The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element, i.e., the
armature or plunger, is proportional to the square of the flux in the
air gap or the square of the current.
• In dc relays this force is constant. In case of ac relays, the total
electromagnetic force pulsates at double the frequency.
• The motion of the moving element is controlled by an opposing
force generally due to gravity or a spring.
 Attracted Armature Relays-Hinged armature
• The coil is energized by an operating
quantity proportional to the system
current or voltage.
• The operating quantity produces a
magnetic flux which in turn produces an
electromagnetic force.
• The electromagnetic force is
proportional to the square of the flux in
the air gap or the square of the current.
• The attractive force increases as the
armature approaches the pole of the
electromagnet.
• used for the protection of small
machines, equipment, as auxiliary relays,
such as indicating flags, slave relays,
alarm relays, annunciators, semaphores,
etc.
 Attracted Armature Relays-Hinged armature
• Constant term and a time dependent term pulsates at double the
frequency. Pulsating term cause the armature to vibrate at double the
frequency. Consequently, the relay produces a humming sound and
becomes noisy.
• The restraining force is provided by a spring.
• The reset to pick-up ratio is 0.5 to 0.9. VA burden is low.
• Instantaneous relay, operating speed is very high. Relay is compact,
robust and reliable.
• They are affected by transients as they are fast and operate on both dc
and ac.
• The fault current contains a dc component in the beginning for a few
cycles. Due to the presence of dc transient, the relay may operate
though the steady state value of the fault current may be less than its
pick-up.
 Attracted Armature Relays-Plunger Type
• There is a solenoid and an iron
plunger which moves in and out of
the solenoid to make and break the
contact.
• The movement of the plunger is
controlled by a spring.
 Attracted Armature Relays- Balanced Beam
• It consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets at its ends.
• One gives operating torque while the other retraining torque.
• The beam is supported at the middle and it remains horizontal under
normal conditions.
• When the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, an
armature fitted at one end of the beam is pulled and its contacts are
closed.
 Attracted Armature Relays- Balanced Beam
• The beam type relay is robust and fast in operation, usually requiring
only 1 cycle.
• It is not accurate as it is affected by dc transients.
Attracted Armature Relays- Moving Coil Relays
• Actuating quantity is dc.
• The VA burden of moving coil
relay is very small. Sensitivity
0.1mW
• The components are: a permanent
magnet, a coil wound on a non-
magnetic former, an iron core, a
phosphor bronze spiral spring to
provide resetting torque, jeweled
bearing, spindle, etc.
• The moving coil assembly carries
an arm which closes the contact. Rotating moving coil relays
Attracted Armature Relays- Moving Coil Relays
• Damping is provided by an aluminum former. A copper former can
be used for heavier damping and slower operation.
• Operating principle: a current carrying conductor placed in a MF
experience a force.
• Thus operating torque due to interaction of field of permanent
magnet and current in coil.
• The operating torque is proportional to the current carried by the
coil.
• The torque exerted by the spring is proportional to deflection.
• The relay has an inverse operating time/current characteristic.
• The operating time is about 2 cycles.
Attracted Armature Relays- Moving Coil Relays
• only one air gap, it is more sensitive
than the rotary moving coil relay.
• Faster than the rotary moving coil
relay because of light parts.
• An operating time of the order of
30ms
• sensitivities as low as 0.1 mW.
• Coils are wound on a cylindrical
former which is suspended
horizontally.
• The coil has only axial movement. Axial moving coil relay
• Inverse operating time-current
characteristics
Induction disc type relays
 Induction disc type relays-shading coil type
• The rotating disc is made of aluminium
• C-shaped electromagnet.
• One half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper
band known as the shading ring.
• The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in
space and time with respect to the flux produced by the un-shaded
portion of the pole.
• Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and
produce eddy currents in it.
• Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy
current produced by the other flux. The resultant torque causes the disc
to rotate.
 Induction disc type relays
• Two alternating fluxes with a
phase shift are needed for torque
production, i.e. a single alternating
flux would not produce torque.
• Maximum torque is produced
when two alternating fluxes are
shifted in phase by 900.
• Herein two fluxes shifted in time
phase are obtained from the input
current, by using a shading coil.

Net force
 Induction disc type relays
• The torque thus produced by the interaction of the two fluxes is
proportional to I2 since each of the flux is proportional to I. This is the
deflecting torque Td.
• The spiral spring provides the control torque Tc considered to be
directly proportional to the angle ⸹, through which the back-stop has
been retarded from the trip position.
• The permanent magnet provides the damping torque, which is active
only when the disc is in motion and is thus proportional to the rate of
change of angle d⸹/dt.
• Relay trips when Tdeflecting>Tcontrolling+Tdamping
 Induction disc type relays-wattmetric
• Two electromagnets, upper and lower.
• Each magnet produces an alternating
flux which cuts the disc.
• To obtain a phase displacement
between two fluxes, their coils may be
energized by two different sources.
• If they are energized by the same
source, the resistance and reactance of
the two circuits are made different so
that there will be sufficient phase
difference between the two fluxes.
 Induction disc type relays-wattmetric
• When the operating current exceeds pick-up value, driving torque
is produced and the disc accelerates to a speed where the braking
torque balances the driving torque. The disc rotates at a speed
proportional to the driving torque.
• It rotates at a constant speed for a given current. The disc inertia
should be as small as possible, so that it should stop rotating as
soon as the fault current disappears when circuit breaker operates
at any other location or fault current is for a short moment (i.e.
transient in nature).
 Induction disc type relays-wattmetric
• After the cessation of the fault current, the disc will travel to some
distance due to inertia. This distance should be minimum. It is
called the over-run of the disc. A brake magnet is used to minimize
over-run. The over-run is usually not more than 2 cycles on the
interruption of a current which is 20 times the current setting.
• At a current below pick-up value, the disc remains stationary by
the tension of the control spring acting against the normal
direction of disc rotation.
• The disc rests against a backstop. The position of the backstop is
adjustable and therefore, the distance by which the moving contact
of the relay travels before it closes contacts, can be varied. The
distance of travel is adjusted for the time setting of the relay.
 Induction disc type relays
• Induction disc type construction is robust and reliable.
• used for overcurrent protection.
• gives an inverse time current characteristic and are slow compared
to the induction cup and attracted armature type relays.
• Its operating time is adjustable and is employed where a time-delay
is required.
• Its reset/pick-up ratio is high, above 95% because its operation does
not involve any change in the air gap.
• The VA burden depends on its application, and is generally of the
order of 2.5 VA.
• The torque is proportional to the square of the actuating current if
single actuating quantity is used.
 Induction cup type relays
• A stationary iron core is placed
inside the rotating cup to decrease
the air gap without increasing
inertia.
• The spindle of the cup carries an
arm which closes contacts.
• A spring is employed to provide a
resetting torque.
• When two actuating quantities are
applied, one may produce an
operating torque while the other
may produce restraining torque.
 Induction cup type relays
• The rotor is a hollow cylinder (inverted cup). Two pairs of coils,
produce a rotating field which induces current in the rotor. A torque
is produced due to the interaction between the rotating flux and the
induced current, which causes rotation.
• The inertia of the cup is much less than that of a disc.
• The magnetic system is more efficient and hence the magnetic
leakage is minimum. It reduces the resistance of the induced current
path in the rotor.
• Due to the low weight of the rotor and efficient magnetic system its
torque per VA is about three times that of an induction disc type
construction. Thus, its VA burden is greatly reduced.
• It possesses high sensitivity, high speed and produces a steady
non-vibrating torque. High torque/inertia ratio, it is quite
suitable for higher speeds of operation.
 Induction type relays-Theory
• Two magnetic fluxes Φ1 and Φ2
differing in time phase penetrate
through a disc. These alternating
fluxes induce emfs e1 and e2 in
the disc which lag their
respective fluxes by 90°. • These emfs lead to the flow of
eddy currents i1 and i2. By the
interaction of Φ1 with i2 and Φ2
with i1 a driving torque is
produced. The currents i1 and i2
lag the voltages e1 and e2 by the
impedance angle λ of the disc,
with negligible self inductance λ0
 Induction type relays-Theory

If the same current produces and the force produced is given by

and
Thermal relays
• utilize the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for operation
• Used for protection of small motors against overloading and unbalanced
currents.
• The thermal element is a bimetallic strip, usually wound into a spiral to
obtain a greater length, resulting in a greater sensitivity.
• A bimetallic element consists of two metal strips of different coefficients
of thermal expansion, joined together. When it heats up one strip expands
more than the other. This results in the bending of the bimetallic strip.
The thermal element can be heated directly by passing the actuating
current through the strip, but usually a heater coil is employed. When the
bimetallic element heats up, it bends and deflects, thereby closing the
relay contacts.
Thermal relays
Thermal relays
• For the ambient temperature compensation, a dummy bimetallic element
shielded from the heater coil and designed to oppose the bending of the
main bimetallic strip is employed.
• When the strip is in a spiral form, the unequal expansions of the two
metals causes the unwinding of the spiral, which results in the closure of
the contacts.
• For the protection of 3-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are used.
They are energized by currents from the three phases. Their contacts are
arranged in such a way that if any one of the spirals moves differently
from the other, due to an unbalance exceeding 12%, their contacts meet
and cause the circuit breakers to trip. These spirals also protect the motor
against overloading.
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