PART – B

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
UNIT – 5
INTRODUCTION
Layout of an airport with component parts and functions, Site selection for airport,
Aircraft characteristics affecting the design and planning of airport, Airport
classification, Runway orientation using wind rose with examples 06 Hrs
QUESTIONS
1. What is an aircraft? Mention the various Parts of an aircraft considered in the design
of an airport.
2. Mention the factors considered in the selection of suitable site for an airport.
3. What is wind rose diagram? Explain any one method of constructing a wind rose
diagram.
4. What is airport capacity? Mention the various factors affecting airport capacity.
5. Explain the aircraft characteristics which affect the planning & design of airports
6. Write brief note on airport classification
7. What is regional planning? What information will the regional plan provide? List
the various data to be collected for a scientific & sound regional plan.
8. Explain the wind rose diagram, wind coverage & calm period.
9. List the aircraft characteristics for planning & design of airports. Show minimum
turning radius with sketch.
10. List the various elements of an airport and explain them with a neat sketch.
 An overall planning of airports for all the regions of a country is called “Regional”
planning.
OBJECTIVES OF REGIONAL PLANNING
 The regional planning of airports is done to provide for the orderly and timely
development of a system of airports adequate to meet the present and future air
transportation needs of the country to:
 Project and enhance the environment through the location and expansion of
aviation facilities in such a way that impairment of the ecology and the intrusion of
acceptable levels of noise and air pollution into the community are avoided.
 Provide a framework for individual airport development programme consistent
with short, intermediate and long term airport system requirements.
 Accomplish the coordination with state airport system plan and regional airport
plans, and serve as a basis for coordinating air navigation facilities, air space used
and air traffic control procedures.
 Develop plans and establish appropriate priorities for airport financing, in short
and long term governmental budgeting.
 Optimize the use of land and airspace and preserve these existing airport facilities
which are consistent with overall objectives of the long term planning.
• Generally an effective planning organization (Civil Aviation Organization in India)
does the job of technical planning, cooperating and coordinating between states,
other concerned organizations and political entities, to participate in the planning of
air facilities.
o An effective organization for regional airport planning should be capable of:
Establishing policies:
 Short and long term policies must respond as nearly as possible to the desires,
attitudes and long range air transportation requirements of the region.
 General policies should relate to and be integrated with comprehensive planning
policy.
Bringing coordination:
 Aviation and non-aviation agencies, airport operators etc. should be brought
together for active participation in planning.
Technical ability:
• The technical planning process begins with inventory step and continues up to the
selection of most suitable alternative and replaced during continuing planning
process.
The following basic information is collected for the regional planning:
(i) The planning period
 The long-range time period for the plan is generally taken as 20 years.
 It includes the need and location for airports, heliports.
 for a major airport to be established , as it takes 8 to 10 years
 after its need has been identified, a 20 year planning seems to be alright.
 for actual development of facilities and cost estimates and budgeting , a shorter
period of 2-5 years may be used
(ii) The geography and topography of the area.
 The geographical limit of the planning areas must be established for data collection,
forecasting and potential site selection.
 The political boundaries of the area are important to determine jurisdictional
involvements.
 In certain difficult terrain, air transportation may be the only accessible mode.
(iii) The population served
 The total population likely to be served by an airport now and in future is to be
arrived at.
 Richer people use more of the air travel.
(iv) Types of airports
 There may be some already existing airports in the planning area which might need
upgrading.
 There may be need for more airport to accommodate schedule airline operation
with conventional aircrafts.
 VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing aircrafts) and STOL (short takeoff and landing
aircrafts) ports should be an important future element of airports system plan.
 Facilities for sea plane or float airports may also be considered.
 Need for military airport for potential joint civil and military use should be
considered.
(v) Ownership and operation of airports
 An airport may be operated by Central Government, State Government or private
individuals.
 Public ownership provide better stability, regular financial aid and certain domain
power.
 Private owner may be given incentives and encouragements to invest in airport
systems on full or at least on interim basis.
 Alternatively an authority may be created at the outset, grouping all the major
airports under one organizational structure such as “National Airport Authority”.
 CONSIDERATIONS IN REGIONAL PLANNING OF AIRPORTS
The various considerations involved in regional airport system planning are outlined
below:
1. Study organization
Establishing policies
Organization and coordination
Procedures
2. Inventories
Airports and their operation:
(a) Civil - air carrier
- general aviation
publicly owned
privately owned
- VTOL and STOL
- special purpose
(b) Military
(c) Expansion possibilities
Airspace and navaids
Aeronautical activity
(a) Air carrier
(i) operations
(ii) origin and destination
(iii) passengers
(iv) cargo
(b) General aviation and military operations and ownership distribution
Environmental factors
Comprehensive land use plans
Transportation plans
Socio-economic factors
Applicable laws, ordinances, regulation
Financial resources
3. Forecasting
Scheduled aviation:
(i) operations
(ii) passengers
(iii) cargo/mail
(iv) origin and destination
(b) Air Taxi
(c) VTOL and STOL
General aviation
Operations
Based aircrafts
Distribution of owners
(d) Military
(a) operation at military fields
(b) operation at civil airports
4.Considerations of new technology
- Aircrafts
- Air navigation
- Ground access
5.System requirements
Aircraft operational requirements
Capacity/demand analysis
(i) airfield
(ii) terminal
(iii) air space
(iv)ground access
6. Alternate systems
Selection of particular system
7. Plan implementation
Political considerations
Environmental considerations
Timing of project
Financing
Land acquisition and land use control
 AIRCRAFT
 An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air.
 It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of
an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
AEROPLANE AND ITS PARTS
The chief parts of an aero plane are:
1. Wings
2. Fuselage
3. Engine (one or more)
4. Air screw
5. Controls
- Elevator
- Rudder
- Aileron
- Flaps
6. Tri-cycle under carriage
1.THE WINGS
• An aero plane may have single pair, double pair, triple or quadruple pair of winds.
• The standard plane is monoplane having on wing on either side of fuselage.
• With more wings planes are termed biplane, triplane, quadriplane.
• Monoplanes are lighter, less air resistance and are, therefore, speedier than bi-planes and
others.
• Biplanes have wings one above another have greater stability
2. Fuselage
 The fuselage is the main body of the air craft.
 It consists of cockpit, space for passengers, cargo, mail and tail.

3. The engine
 An aeroplane may have one, two, three or four engines.
 If single engine is used, it is provided in the nose of the air-craft.
 Two or four engines are placed symmetrically about the nose on wings.
 In case of three engines, one is placed in nose, one each of the two wings.

4. The air screw or propellers

 Air screw helps in converting the power of the engine into thrust to drive the
aeroplane forward.
 The screw is provided in the front of the engine.
 It has two or more blades.
5. The controls
 The aircraft is provided with four principal air controls.
 Controls are meant for take off and landing, for losing and gaining the speed.
(a) Elevator
 It is hinged flap to the rear frame member on tail.
 It can be moved upwards through an arc of 50° to 60°.
 It is operated by pilot from his cabin.
 Elevator is most important control during take off and manoeuvre.
 It helps in loosing speed and turning of aeroplane.
(b) Rudder
 It is operated from pilots cabin and enables the pilot to point nose of the aeroplane
in the desired direction.
 Rudder is like a rudder of a ship or boat, usually placed at the rear end of fuselage.
 It can move right or left along vertical axis by 30°.
(c) Ailerons
 They are hinged flaps mounted near the rear ends of the wing on either side.
 It is operated by the pilot such that when aileron on one wing rises, the aileron on the
other wing goes down and vice versa.
 This produces rolling motion and enables the pilot to restore it to level flight.
 They are stabilizing agents for plane.
(d) Flaps
 Flaps at the rear end of wings are used as air brakes when turned down under the
wings to provide powerful resistance causing quick drop in the flying speed.
(6) Tri-cycle under carriage
 A pair of wheels is provided in the fuselage or in the wings, near the junction of wings
and fuselage.
 A third wheel, if provided at the TAIL, is to keep nose position up, and if provided at
the NOSE, keeps the nose position down.
 AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO AIRPORT DESIGN
Planner and designer of airports must know the following principal characteristics of
the air-crafts, which can be accommodated in design:
1. Type of propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Weight of the aircraft
4. Capacity of aircraft
5. Range of aircraft
6. Speed
7. Turning radius
8. Tyre-pressure and contact area
9. Fuel spillage
10. Heat and noise
11. Aircraft circling radius
12. Weight on gear system and gear arrangement
13. Speed of jet balast
 1. TYPE OF PROPULSION
Based on the type of propulsion and thrust generating medium aircrafts could be
classified as:
1. Piston engine: have reciprocating engine which is fitted with propellers.
Example - DC-3, DC-4, DC-6, DC-7 etc
2. Turbo jet: have turbo-engines which are not driven by propellers.
Example - De Havilland’s Comet 4B, Convair’s 880 and 990, DC-8 etc
3. Turbo fan or turbo prop: Turbo engines have a fan either at front or rear of the
turbo engine.
Example - DC-852, 707-120B and 70-732 OB.
2. SIZE
Size of an aircraft can be defined by the following:
- wing-span
- length
- the maximum height
- distance between main gear
 Wing span decides the apron size, taxiway clearance, turning clearance.
 Length decides the width of exit taxiway, apron size, length of hanger.
 Height effects the height of hanger and its gate.
 Distance between main gear decides the geometrics of exit runway.
 3. CAPACITY

Capacity of an aircraft includes:

- fuel space

- passenger space and

- cargo space

Bigger the capacity, larger are dimension and greater is the weight.

4. WEIGHT
 Structural design of the airport is based on the total load of the aircraft.

The weight of the aircraft may be classified into:

(a) Operating weight

 Operating weight is the weight of empty aircrafts, its crew and all equipment ready
for flight, excluding the passengers and fuel-load.

(b) Payload

It is revenue producing load which consists of passengers, mail and cargo.

(C) FUEL WEIGHT
 It consists of weight of the fuel taken by the aircraft required for the trip and certain
reserve.
 It may vary from 9 to 40% of the total gross weight.
(D) MAXIMUM GROSS TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
 The maximum overall weight of the aircraft is that weight which is permitted for take-
off manoeuvre.
 It consists of operating empty weight + payload + fuel reserve + fuel required for trip.

 Airport pavement is designed for this load.

(E) MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT

 At landing aircraft loses weight of fuel consumption in flight.

5. RANGE
 The length of normal haul is called ‘range’.
 The range has important influence on the frequency of operation, affecting peak hour
traffic and runway capacity.
 6. SPEED
• Although speed has nothing to do with direct planning of the airport, it gives an idea
of the arrival of the aircraft.
• Aircraft speed may be defined as:
(a) ground speed, also called cruising speed
 Ground or cruising speed is the speed of the aircraft relative to ground.
 It is important to passenger.
(b) Air speed
 Air speed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the medium in which it is travelling.
 It is important for pilot.
 If craft is moving at 1000 kmph and air moving in opposite direction at 100 kmph
the air speed is 900 kmph
7. TURNING RADIUS
 Turning radius would decide the radius of curves at the end of taxiway.
 It helps in location of aprons and other installation.
 Turning radius is recommended by the manufactures.
8. TYRE-PRESSURE AND CONTACT AREA
 Maximum tire pressure and contact areas help in arriving at the total thickness of
the airport pavement and suitability of the type of pavement.
 Small contact area has the punching effect on pavement.
 9. FUEL-SPILLAGE
 Jet aircrafts issue hot blasts at high temperatures, which may melt the binder of the
flexible pavement.
 Under repetitive loads binder comes out.
 Maximum temperatures may be of the order of 385°F.
 Fuel spillage affects taxiways, aprons and ends of runway, as it occurs when engine is
shut down or speeded down.
 With a view to cope with these high temperatures asphaltic concrete, rubberized tar
concrete or plain concrete may be used.
 “Epox” is another material used in USA, with asphalt concrete and is known as
“Epoxy Asphalat Concrete”.
10. HEAT AND NOISE
 In supersonic planes, the speed and fuel economy favours the use of turbo fan engine
which gives greater noise during ground stay.
 Noise is of importance in planning and site-selection of the airport.
 It is considered advantageous to locate the airports away from the residential areas.
 11. CIRCLING RADIUS
 In landing operations, bigger aircrafts will have to take longer and bigger radius
circles, before landing.
 Two aircrafts should be so spaced that maneuvering path for the aircraft landing
simultaneously one at each port do not interfere.
 For jet planes it may be 50 miles (80 kms)
 For other planes it may be 5 to 10 miles (8 kms to 15 kms)
12. GEAR SYSTEM AND GEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 Aircrafts are supported on nose or tail wheels (gears)
 and two main gears located in the wing area on each side on the fuselage.
 For designing the pavements, it is assumed that:
- 10% of the weight is on the nose gear
- 90% of the weight is on the main gears
Gear combinations for aircrafts is shown in Fig. 3.6.
13. SPEED OF JET BLAST
 The shoulders are badly affected due to tremendous speed of the jet blast.
 Maximum blast occurs at all turnings, taxiways, take-off ends of the runway.
 Dense turf or a thin bituminous pavement may save the cohesion less soils from
erosion.
 STEPS IN SITE SELECTION OF AIRPORT
 The goal of site selection is to find a suitable location to accommodate all functions
of the airport through evaluation of feasibilities of possible locations from
environmental, geographic, economic and engineering standpoints.
 The various steps which are involved in selecting the suitable site are:
 Requirement of land area.
 Evaluation of factors affecting airport location.
 Preliminary office study of possible sites.
 Site inspection.
 Environmental sites.
 Preparation of outline plans and estimates of costs and revenues.
 Final evaluation and selection.
 Report and recommendations.
 Airports should be said at a place from where aircraft operations can be carried out
efficiently and safely, cost of development is at optimum level, and
 it is an integral part of the national network of airports, as per regional planning
requirements.
 FATORS AFFECTING AIRPORT SITE SELECTION
 Presence of other airports
 Land use and land values
 Topography of the area
 Obstructions
 Wind considerations
 Atmospheric factors
 Geological factors
 Environmental factors
 Aircraft noise
 Available of construction material
 Available of utilities
 Avoiding hazards
 Ground access
 Social considerations
 1. PRESENCE OF OTHER AIRPORT
 Interference between the two airports in close proximity should be avoided.
 The distance between the airports will depend upon circling radius of largest
aircrafts, and operational controls used.
 Locations of existing airports and their associated airspaces should be noted,
 and also their future plans (if any) to change them when two airports have to share
same airspace, their combined aircraft movements are restricted.
 New airports should be so located to minimize such restrictions.
2. LAND USE AND LAND VALUES
 The site should provide adequate space to permit development and expansion on long
term basis.
 Study should be made about general land values and is usage (residential,
agricultural, etc.).
 Existing land use should not be affected by aircraft operations.
 Costly land acquisitions may have to be avoided.
 Land values generally increase significantly as areas change from rural to urban use.
 Early reservation of suitable sites will often enable airports to be better located and
at lower costs.
 3. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE AREA
 Topography is important because the slope of the terrains, the location
 And variation of natural features can affect the requirements for clearing, filling,
grading etc.
 Natural slopes and drainage of land are important for design and construction.
 Topographical maps should be studied to ascertain the suitability of site for drainage
and grading.
 Terrain which conforms closely to the desirable levels
 and which is well drained may produced significant cost savings.
4. OBSTRUCTION
 Obstructions which approach area for landing or taking off of an aircraft should be
removed.
 Long clearance areas (15 kms) are required on either side of runways.
 It is difficult to obtain sites which provide all the clearance desired.
 Features such as high terrain, trees and structures which constitute obstacles need to
be avoided.
 5. WIND CONSIDERATIONS
 Runways should be oriented in the direction of the prevailing wind when it blows
consistently from one direction.
 The wind data at site, collected for several years in the past should be studied for
arriving at suitable direction of runways and number of runways required.
 It is important to know the velocity and direction of wind along with their direction,
throughout the year for several years.
 Wind distribution in association with visibility area of prime importance in deciding
on runway orientation
 and the need to make provisions for operation under all weather or only visual
conditions.
6. ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
 The information on fog, smoke etc. which may consequently reduce visibility should
be collected.
 Any special weather factor such as rapid variations, low clouds, snowfall and
rainfall etc. affect the use, efficiency and capacity of an airport operation.
 7. GEOLOGICAL FACTORS
 The geological maps should be studied to know the distribution of soil and rock
types.
 Soil sampling and testing may be required to establish characteristics of the soil.
 Classification of natural soils at potential sites is important from design point of view.

 Soil improvement techniques are quite costly, and may be avoided if possible.
8. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Locations of wild life reserves and migration of wildlife should be studied.
 other aspects of the site should be taken into account such as Noise sensitivity and
other environmental and ecological
 To determine how the airport requirements can be best accommodated for that
Studies of the impact of the construction, operation of airport upon acceptable levels
of air , water quality, noise levels, ecological processes and demographic development
of the area must be conducted
 Other environmental factors include air and water pollution, industrial wastes,
domestic sewage, originating at the airport and the disturbance of natural
environmental values.
 9. AIRCRAFT NOISE
 The noise in the vicinity of airports is a serious problem to be considered in the
development of airport facilities.
 It is not always feasible to site an airport sufficiently far away from population
centers to prevent an adverse social reaction.
 Remotely located airports are costly, unrealistic and waste lot of time and energy.
 Every effort should be made to orient air traffic away from built-up area.

10. AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

 The materials of constructions, stone quarries if they are available nearly it will save
transportation costs of such materials from distant places.
 The location of water supplies is also relevant because their availability and the
distance over which they have to be carried will affect the cost of construction.
 11. AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES
 The utilities such as main power line, water supplies, sewage, telephone services, fuel etc.
 if available at or near the site, it will be a big advantages.
 if possible Potential airport site, should be close to utilities.
 Availability of these services may eliminate the need to provide them specifically for the
airport and thus reduce cost.

12. AVOIDING HAZARDS

 Local factors of site should be considered.

 For example, industry can produce smoke in certain direction of wind creating low
visibility, restricting VFR operations.
 Sites close to wildlife reserves, lakes, rivers and coastal areas, refuse dumps and sewage
outfalls etc. may not be desirable because of the danger of aircrafts collision with birds.
 Location of sites close to migratory patterns and routes of birds such as swans and geese
may be a potential bird hazard.
13. Ground access
 Fast and efficient access facilities for passengers and freight are essential for an airport to
provide efficient service.
 Sites offering convenient road network may be better than those with inefficient or
inadequate transport system.
 Heavy expenditures may be required to overcome those deficiencies.

14. Social considerations

 Airports need to be sited such that flight paths do not pass over concentrations of
population while aircrafts are below certain heights.
 However, airports also need to be located not very far away from towns and
commercial areas they serve.
 A compromise between the above two opposing requirements will be required, for a
site with best overall merit.
 RUNWAY ORIENTATION
 Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds.
 The head wind. i.e. the direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and
take-off, provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is taking-off.
 As such the aircraft rises above the ground much earlier and in a shorter length of
runway.
 During landing, the head wind provides a braking effect and the aircraft comes to a
stop in a smaller length of runway.
 Landing and take-off operations, if done along the wind direction, would require
longer runway.
Cross Wind Component and Wind Coverage
 It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the centre line of
runway throughout the year.
 On some day of the year or hour of the day, the wind may blow making certain angle
with the centre line of runway.
 If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway centre line, its component along the
direction of runway will be V cos and that normal to the runway centre line will be V
sin where V is the wind velocity.
 The normal component of the wind is called cross wind component and may interrupt
the safe landing and take-off of the air-crafts.
 The maximum permissible cross wind component depends upon the size of aircraft and
the wing configuration.
 FAA recommends that for small air crafts, the cross wind component should not exceed
15 kmph (10 kmph) and for mixed traffic it should not exceed 25 kmph (15 mph).
 For airports serving big aircrafts ICAO recommends that the cross wind component
should not exceed 35 kmph (23 mph).
 The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains within
the limits as specified above is called wind coverage.
 According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned that for 95
per cent of time in a year, the permissible cross wind component does not exceed 25
kmph.
 For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased to as much as 98 percent to 100
percent.
 Wind Rose
 The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose.
 The wind data should usually be collected for a period of at least 5 years and preferably
of 10 years, so as to obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy.
 As far as possible, these observations should be taken at or near site selected, since the
wind conditions may vary considerably with location particularly in hilly regions.
 A typical wind data is given in Table 6.1.
 In this table, the duration of wind for any one direction covers an angle of 22.5 degrees
as shown in Figure 6.1.
 If is assumed that the wind may come from any point within the 22.5 degree sector.
 It is possible the wind for a particular location have not been recorded.
 In such cases the data from two or more of the nearest wind recording station should be
used to fix up the wind characteristics of the site.
 However, this can not be done if the intervening terrain is mountainous.
 In such cases, the observations of the wind at the actual site should be recorded for at
least one year and these results should be used in the interpretation of the data of the
nearby weather station as applied to site.
 Wind rose diagram can be plotted form the data of Table 6.1.
 It helps in analyzing the wind data and obtaining the most suitable direction of the
runway.
 Table 6.1 Wind Data*

Duration of wind, per cent**

Total in
6.4-25 25-40 40-60
Wind direction each direction
kmph kmph kmph
percent

N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3

NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8.1
NE 2.4 0.9 0.6 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8
E 0.8 0.2 0.0 1.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 7.1
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0 7.1
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0 8.7
S 9.7 4.6 0.0 14.3
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 percentage =7.2
total 86.5
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
 Average of 3 years periods.
 Percentage of time during which wind intensity, is less than 64 kmph is 100-86.5 – 13.5
percent. This period is called calm period and does not influence the operation of landing
or take-off because low wing intensity.
Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types as follows:
Type I : Showing direction and duration of wind
Type II : Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Type I Wind Rose
 This type of wind rose is illustrated in Figure 6.2.
 The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration and
each circle represents the duration of wind.
 From the Table 6.1, it is observed that the total percentage of time in a year during which
the wind blows from both direction is 10.3 percent.
 This value is plotted along the north direction in Figure 6.2.
 Similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions.
 All plotted points are then jointed by straight lines as shown in Figure 6.2.
 The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest line on wind rose
diagram.
 In Figure 6.2, the best orientation of runway is thus along NS direction.
 If deviation of wind direction upto (22.5°+11.25°) from the direction of landing and take-
off is permissible, the percentage of time in a year during which the runway can safely be
used for landing and take-off, will be obtained by summing the percentages of time along
NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S and SSW directions.
 This comes to 57.0 per cent.
 Calm period, i.e., the percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph
is also added to the above period.
 The total percentage of the time therefore comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5.
 This type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.
Type II Wind Rose
 This type of wind rose is illustrated in Figure 6.3.
 The wind data as in the previous type. i.e. of Table 6.1 is used for this case.
 Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale.
 The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a year during
which the wind, having a particular intensity, blows from the respective direction.
 The procedure for determining the orientation of runway is described below:
(i) Draw three equi – spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that the
distance between the two near by parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind
component.
- This distance is measured with the same scale with which the wind rose diagram is
drawn.
- In Figure 6.3, the permissible cross wind component is 25 kmph.
(ii) Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the central
line passes through the centre of the diagram.
(iii) With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position that
the sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind, within the two outer parallel
lines, is the maximum.
- The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line.
The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentages shown in
segment.
- The percentage value is assumed to be equally distributed over the entire area of the
segment.
- When of the outer parallel lines of the transparent strip crosses a segment, a fractional
part of the percentage appearing in that segment within the outside lines is also counted in
the summation.
- Fractional areas are determined by judgement to the nearest decimal place.
In Figure 6.3, the maximum wind coverage in per cent is obtained as 13.50 (Calm period)
+ 7.40 + 5.70 + 2.40 + 1.20 + 0.80 + 0.30 + 4.30 + 5.50 + 9.70 + 6.30 + 3.60 + 1.00 +
0.40 + 0.20 + 5.30 + 4.00 + 2.70 + 2.10 + 0.10 + 0.03 + 2.10 + 3.20 + 4.60 + 3.20 + 1.13
+ 0.02 + 1.50 + 1.30 + 0.20 + 0.20 + 0.0 + 0.30 + 0.25 = 96.50
(iv) Read the bearing of the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose where the
central line on the transparent paper crosses the angular scale.
- In Figure 6.3 the best orientation of runway is along the direction whose whole circle
bearing is zero degree i.e. along NS direction.
(v) If the coverage provided by a single runway is not sufficient, two or more
number of runways are planned in such a manner that the total coverage provided by them
is as required.
 AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION
 The geometric standards of an airport depends upon the performance characteristics of the
aircrafts that will use the airport, the weather conditions and the services rendered by the
airport, i.e., weather international or for domestic use.
 The airport classification helps in the design of airport and to establish the uniformity in the
design standards.
 It also assists the pilots in identifying the size and the services which the airport can provide.
 The airports have been classified by various agencies viz.
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), United
States Air force etc.
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION (ICAO) CLASSIFICATION.
 The ICAO classifies the airports in two ways.
 In the first method, the classification is based on the basic runway length of the airport.
 It also describes various other geometric standards of the airport.
 The classification has been done by using code letters viz.
 A to E in which the A type of airport has the longest runway length and E type has the
shortest length.
 This is shown in Table 6.2.
 In the second method, classification is based on the equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) and
the tire pressure of the aircraft which will use the airport.
 The classification has been done by using the numerical numbers viz.
 1 to 7 as shown in Table 6 3.
(i) Maximum effective grade : 1.0 per cent for A, B. C and 2.0 per cent for D and E types.
(ii) Maximum transverse grade : 1.5 per cent for A, B, C and 2 per cent for D and E types.
(iii) Rate of change of Longitudinal grade : For 30 m (100 ft) length of vertical curve; 0.1 per
cent for A and B, 0.2 per cent for C and C and 0.4 per cent for D and E types.
Table 6.2 Summary of Runway Geometric (ICAO)

Basic runway length Runway

Airport pavement Maximum
types width longitudinal
Maximum Minimum
grade %

m ft m ft m ft

A 2100 7000 45 150 1.5

B 2099 6999 1500 5000 45 150 1.5

C 1490 4999 900 3000 30 100 1.5

D 899 2999 750 2500 22.5 75 2.0

E 749 2499 600 2000 18 60 2.0

(iv) Safety area - Minimum width of 150 m (500 ft) for A, B, C and 78 m (260 ft) for D and E
types. It extends at least 60 beyond runway end on either side.
Table 6.3 Summary of Runway Geometric (ICAO)

Code Single isolated wheel load Tire pressure

kg lbs Kg/cm² Lbs/in² (p.s i.)

1 45,000 100,000 8.5 120

2 34,000 75,000 7.0 110
3 27,000 60,000 7.0 100
4 20,000 45,000 7.0 100
5 13,000 30,000 6.0 85
6 7,000 15,000 5.0 70
7 2,000 5,000 2.5 35
 AIRPORT CAPCITY
 The number of aircraft movements which an airport can process within a specified period
of time, with an average delay to the departing aircraft within the acceptable time limit is
defined as airport capacity.
 Each aircraft makes two movement, viz, landing and takes off.
THE FOLLOWING FACTORS AFFECT THE AIRPORT OPERATING CAPACITY:
(i) Runway configurations and the connected taxiways
(ii) Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to departure ratio
(iii) Weather conditions
(iv) Terrain and man-made obstructions
(v) Loading apron space
(vi) Navigational aids
(vii) Aircraft processing technique
RUNWAY CONFIGURATIONS AND THE CONNECTED TAXIWAYS
 The runway configuration affects the capacity
 The appurtenant taxiways are important to clear the landing aircraft from the runways as
soon as possible.
 AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR ARRIVAL TO DEPARTURE
RATIO
 Smaller and slower aircrafts occupy the runway for less time and can be spaced closer
than bigger and faster aircrafts.
 Therefore, the capacity of airport serving smaller aircrafts is generally higher than the one
serving bigger and faster aircrafts.
 Thus, for a given delay to the departing aircrafts, the airport capacity increases when the
large turbo jet aircrafts are removed.
 Landing operation is generally given priority over the taking off operation.
 As such, the ratio of arriving and departing aircrafts also influences the airport capacity.

WEATHER CONDITIONS
 Airport capacity during IFR conditions is usually less than during VFR conditions.
 The reason is that during clear weather conditions (VER), the aircrafts on final approach
to runway can be spaced closer during the poor visibility conditions.
 OBSTRUCTIONS IN AIRPORT VICINITY
 Terrain or man-made obstructions in the vicinity of the airport restrict the number of
inbound and outbound air routes from the airport.
LOADING APRON SPACE
 If sufficient space is not available for loading, unloading and parking aircrafts, it may
result in delay in the terminal area or even the reduction in the number of aircraft
operations.
 Thus the airport capacity may be reduced.
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
 This is particularly important in poor visibility conditions.
 For example, an airport having ILS facility to two runways or one runway in both
directions will have greater capacity than an airport equipped with one ILS approach.
 Radar and surveillance radar can process the aircrafts more rapidly.
AIRCRAFT PROCESSING TECHNIQUE
If the controller is provided with the computer facility, he may be able to process the
aircrafts rapidly, thereby reducing the delays.
 MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS
• In order to decide the radius of taxiways, the position of aircrafts in loading aprons and
hangars and to establish the path of the movement of aircraft, it is very essential to study
the geometry of the turning movement of aircrafts.
• The turning radius of an aircraft is illustrated in Figure 3.23.
• To determine the minimum tuning radius, a line is drawn through the axis of the nose
gear when it is at its maximum angle of rotation.
• The point, where this line intersects another line drawn through the axis of the two main,
gears, is called the centre of rotation.
• The distance of the farther wing tip from the centre of rotation represents the minimum
turning radius.
• Theoretically, the maximum turning radius.
• Theoretically, the maximum angle of rotation is 90°.
• Corresponding to this, turning radius would be absolute minimum, the condition which
causes skidding of one of the main gears thereby producing excessive tire wear.
• To keep the tire-wear of the main gears within reasonable limits, the maximum angle of
rotation of the nose gear has been limited by the manufacturers.
• For example, for a large turbo jet this angle is between 50° to 60°.
 THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF AN AIRPORT
i. Runway
ii. Taxiway
iii. Hanger
iv. Terminal building
v. Loading apron
vi. Holding apron
vii. Control tower.
RUNWAY
 It is a narrow strip having more length than width and used for landing and take – off of
aircrafts.
 It is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds so that head wind provides better
uplift to the wings during take-off
 and if the aircraft land against the prevailing winds it requires less braking distance.
TAXIWAY
 The movement of an aircraft on land is called taxing and the path provided is called
taxiway.
 Thus a taxiway provides access to the aircrafts from runway to loading apron, holding
apron or hanger.
 The length of taxiway should be short as possible and more number of taxiways should be
provided to reduce fuel consumption and occupancy time of runway after the aircraft has
 HANGER
 It is an enclosed space provided for serving and repairs of aircrafts.
 They are constructed of steel frames covered with asbestos sheets or galvanized iron
sheets.
 It also houses machine shop and store for spare parts.
 Size of the hanger depends on size of aircrafts that uses the airport.
LOADING APRON
 It is a place for loading and unloading of passengers, baggage and cargo.
 Usually, it is provided in front of the terminal building or surrounding it.
 Sufficient space should be provided for a few aircrafts to load, unload simultaneously
otherwise it would result in delay to the aircrafts and passengers.
HOLDING APRON
 This is provided at the end of runway and used for final checking of aircraft before take
off.
 This space should be sufficiently large so that if a departing aircraft could not take off due
to some technical problem, other aircraft waiting in line would get chance for take off.
CONTROL TOWER
 This is usually located either on top of terminal building or opposite to it, so that large
area of airport is visible.
 The control tower is responsible for issuing clearances to all arriving and departing
aircrafts as well as establishing ground contact during the course of flight either during
arrival or departure.