2.3.

1 The internal structure of a leaf

the internal structure or tissues of a green leaf that

made it best suited for food synthesis

The two internal layers of a leaf, namely;

–Outer layer and
–Middle (inner) layer.
A) Outer layer
• This is also known as the epidermis
• is a single layer of tightly packed cells that
covers
 the upper epidermis and
 lower surface of the leaf.
 The upper epidermis is usually covered by a
waxy cuticle
 which transmits sunlight for photosynthesis but
 restricts water loss by evaporation from the leaf
tissue.
 The lower epidermis
• contains bean shaped guard cells that leave open
spaces known as stomata (singular stoma).
• Stomata are “little mouths” or “ little noses”,
which regulate O2 release, CO2 intake and water
loss.
• In most leaves, stomata are more abundant in the
lower epidermis
 reducing water loss due to direct sunlight.

Epidermis Does not contain chloroplast Except

guard cells
Q. What is the function of the epidermis?
B) Middle layer
• This is known as the mesophyll layer (“middle
leaf”) .
• It lies between the upper and lower epidermis.
• It includes tissues that are directly or indirectly
involved in photosynthesis.
• There are two regions in the mesophyll layer.
• The palisade layer
• The spongy layer
 The palisade layer

• Is the layer beneath the upper epidermis

• is composed of regularly arranged and closely
packed columnar (vertically elongated) cells.
• The cells contain the largest number of chloroplasts
per cell.
• it is in the best position to capture most of the
sunlight
this enables it to carry out most of the
photosynthesis.
• The slight but precise separation of the columnar
cells maximizes the diffusion of CO2 and capillary
movement of H20.
 The spongy layer
• lies below the palisade cells.
• are irregularly shaped with fewer chloroplasts.
• They are very loosely arranged with numerous
airspaces.
• air spaces, which are very close to the stomata
allow the diffusion of O2, water vapour and CO2.
2.3.2 The internal structure of a stem
 the internal structure of a typical dicot stem of a
flowering plant includes the following
fundamental tissue systems:-
 Epidermis
 Hypodermis
 Cortex
 Endodermis
 vascular bundle
 Pith
The epidermis
• is the outermost layer of the stem with thickened
cuticles.
 which minimizes the rate of transpiration.
• the cells are compactly arranged
 protect the underlying tissues from mechanical
injury and
 prevent the entry of harmful organisms
fig. Internal structure of a typical dicot stem (A = Ground plan; B =
Transverse section)
Hypodermis lies below the epidermis.
 the bottom layer of leaf.
 It is mainly composed of:-
 Collenchyma cells
 have thick deposits of cellulose in their cell walls
and appear polygonal in cross section.
 They are commonly found in :-
stems and leaves of many herbaceous and
 woody plants.
 herbaceous plants- Plant lacking a permanent
woody stem
 Collenchyma cells -
provide support
mechanical strength and
flexibility to the petiole, leaf veins , and stem of
young plants
 allowing for easy bending without breakage.
 Chloronchyma cells
 contain chloroplasts (chlorophyll).
 can carry out photosynthesis.
 They are abundant in the mesophyll layer of
leaves.
 They are also found in photosynthetic stems of
young seedlings and herbaceous plants.
 Parenchyma cells –
 are thin walled cells, occurring in the form of
continuous masses as parenchyma tissue in
the hypodermis and cortex of stems
 mesophyll of leaves, and
the flesh of succulent fruits and endosperm of
seeds.
 Parenchyma cells perform most of the plant’s
metabolic function such as
storage of energy (mainly in the form of starch and
fat) and wastes or by products (tannin, resins,
gums, etc)
involved in gaseous exchange (have lenticel)
(which takes place in the intercellular spaces) and
support photosynthesis (as the cells containing
chlorophyll)
Cortex -consists of :-
few layers of thin-walled large, round, or oval
cells
having intercellular space
 serving for storage of food.
Endodermis –
• is the innermost layer of the cortex
• separates the cortex from the vascular bundles.
• The cells are compactly arranged and usually
contain starch grains.
 Thus, the endodermis serves as a food reserve
and may be termed as a starch sheath.
Vascular bundles
 are longitudinal strands of conducting tissues or
transporting vessels, consisting essentially of
xylem and phloem arranged in a ring around the
central pith.
 Xylem- transports water and dissolved minerals
to the photosynthetic tissues, mainly to the leaf
while
 phloem transports synthesized food to different
tissues, either for utilization or storage.
 Cambium – is a layer of actively dividing young
cells between xylem and phloem.
 It is responsible for secondary growth (growth in
diameter or thickness) of the stem.
 Pith – occupies the central portion of the stem
• composed of thin walled cells, which are rounded
or polygonal, with or without intercellular space.
 It stores food and helps in the internal
translocation of water.
2.3.3 The internal structure of a root
 the transverse section of the dicot root shows the
following plan of arrangement of tissues.
Peliferous layer- is the outermost layer made up
of single-layer cells.
• The cuticle is absent.
• It consists the single-celled root hairs.
Cortex -is a multi-layered large zone made of thin-
walled oval or rounded loosely arranged cells with
intercellular spaces.
• It stores food and water.
Endodermis - is the innermost layer of the cortex,
made of barrel-shaped closely packed cells.
• The layer helps the movement of water and
dissolved nutrients from the cortex into the xylem
Pericycle -is a single layer inner to endodermis.
 It is the site of origin of lateral roots.
Vascular bundles - consist of xylem and phloem
with meristematic (cambium) or actively dividing
cells between them
 Pith is present in young roots while absent in old
roots.
fig. Internal structure of a typical dicot root