Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th

Edition
Chapter 26:
Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations

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Chapter Outline
 Introduction
 Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
 The Grinding Process
 Grinding Operations and Machines
 Design Considerations for Grinding
 Ultrasonic Machining
 Finishing Operations
 Deburring Operations
 Economics of Abrasive Machining and Finishing Opera
tions

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Introduction
 Some manufacturing processes cannot produce the
required dimensional accuracy or surface finish
 An abrasive is a small, hard particle having sharp
edges and an irregular shape
 Abrasives is removing of small amounts of material
from a surface through a cutting process that produces
tiny chips
 Grinding wheels can sharpen
knives and tools
 Sandpaper or emery cloth can
smoothen surfaces and remove
sharp corners
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Introduction
 Abrasives are hard and used in finishing processes for
heat-treated metals and alloys
 Applications include:
1. Finishing of ceramics and glasses
2. Cutting off lengths of bars, structural shapes, masonry
and concrete
3. Removing unwanted weld beads and spatter
4. Cleaning surfaces with jets of air or water containing
abrasive particles.

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Introduction

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives
 Abrasives that are commonly used:
1. Conventional abrasives
2. Superabrasives
 Above abrasives are harder than conventional cutting-
tool materials
 Cubic boron nitride and diamond are the two hardest
materials known; referred to as superabrasives
 Friability defined as the ability of abrasive grains to
fracture into smaller pieces

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives
Abrasive Types
 Commonly found in nature are emery ( 80%AL2O3),
corundum (alumina), quartz (SiO2), garnet (silicate
mineral deposit)and diamond
 Abrasives that have been made synthetically:
1. Aluminum oxide
2. Silicon carbide
3. Cubic boron nitride
4. Diamond

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives
Abrasive Grain Size
 Abrasives are very small when compared to the size of
cutting tools and inserts
 Abrasives have sharp edges and allow removal of
small quantities of material
 Size of an abrasive grain is identified by a grit number
 Smaller the grain size, larger the grit number
 For heavy sanding and stripping, you need coarse
sandpaper measuring 40- to 60-grit; for smoothing
surfaces and removing small imperfections, choose 80-
to 120-grit sandpaper.

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives
Abrasive–workpiece-material Compatibility
 Affinity of an abrasive grain to the workpiece material is
important
 The less the reactivity of the two materials, the less
wear and dulling of the grains occur during grinding
 Recommendations when selecting abrasives:
1. Aluminum oxide: Carbon steels, ferrous alloys, and
alloy steels.
2. Silicon carbide: Nonferrous metals, cast irons
3. Cubic boron nitride: Steels and cast irons
4. Diamond: Ceramics, cemented carbides, hardened
steels
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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
 Each abrasive grain removes only a very small amount
of material at a time
 High rates of material removal can be achieved when
large number of these grains act together
 Done by using bonded abrasives

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
 In bonded abrasives, porosity is essential to provide
clearance for produced chips and cooling
 Porosity can be observed by the surface of grinding
wheel
 For non-porosity, it is fully dense and solid

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
 Due to their high cost, only a small volume wheels
consists of superabrasives
 Bonded abrasives are indicated by the type of abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure, and bond type

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
 Cost of grinding wheels depends on the type and size
of the wheel

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Bond Types
 Common types of bonds:
1. Vitrified:
 Consist of feldspar and clays (silicates of Ca,K etc
41% pf earth)
 aluminosilicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium.
 Strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to oils acids, and
water
2. Resinoid:
 Bonding materials are thermosetting resins
 plastics, adhesives, varnishes, or other products.
 Resinoid wheels are more flexible than vitrified
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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Bond Types
3. Reinforced Wheels:
 Consist of layers of fiberglass mats of various mesh
sizes
4. Rubber:
 Using powder-metallurgy techniques
 Lower in cost and are used for small production
quantities

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Abrasives and Bonded
Abrasives:
Wheel Grade and Structure
 The grade of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its
bond strength
 The grade is also referred to as the hardness of a
bonded abrasive
 A hard wheel has a stronger bond and/or a larger
amount of bonding material between the grains than a
soft wheel
 Structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its
porosity

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The Grinding Process
 Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an
individual abrasive grain as the cutting tool

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The Grinding Process
Grinding Forces
 Knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:
1. Estimating power requirements
2. Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices.
3. Determining the deflections that the workpiece

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The Grinding Process
 In surface grinding, undeformed chip length and
thickness is approximated by equation

 4v   d 
l  Dd t   
 VCr   D 

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 C is number of cutting  r is ratio chip width to
points per unite undeformed chip
cutting area. thickness
 Ranges from 0.1 to 10  Ranges from 10 to 20
per mm2
The Grinding Process
Grinding Forces
 A knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:
1. Estimating power requirements
2. Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices
3. Determining the workpiece and grinding machine
deflections
 Grain force is proportional to the process variables:

v d 
Grain Force    UTS
V D 

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The Grinding Process
Specific Energy
 Energy dissipated in producing a grinding chip consists
of energy required from:
1. Chip formation
2. Plowing
3. Friction

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The Grinding Process
EXAMPLE 26.1
Forces in Surface Grinding
A surface-grinding operation is being performed on low-
carbon steel with a wheel of diameter D=250 mm that is
rotating at N=4000 rpm and a width of cut of w=25 mm.
The depth of cut is d=0.05 mm and the feed rate of the
workpiece, is 1.5 m/min. Calculate the cutting force and
the thrust force.

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The Grinding Process
Solution
Forces in Surface Grinding
The material-removal rate (MRR) is
MMR dwv 0.05251500  1875 mm 3
The power consumed is
 1 
Power u MMR  40  1875 75,000 Nm/min
 60 
Since power is
Power Tw
 250   1 
7500 Fc   2 4000   Fc 24 N
 2   1000 
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The Grinding Process
Solution
Forces in Surface Grinding
Thrust force can be estimated by noting from experimental
data in the technical literature that it is about 30% higher
than the cutting force
Fn 1.3 24 31 N

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The Grinding Process
Temperature
 Temperature rise in grinding is important as it can:
1. Adversely affect the surface properties
2. Cause residual stresses on the workpiece
3. Cause distortions due to thermal expansion and
contraction of the workpiece surface
 Surface-temperature rise in grinding is
1/ 2
1/ 4 3 / 4  V 
T  D d  
v
 Temperature increases with increasing d, D, and V
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The Grinding Process
Sparks
 Sparks produced are chips that glow due to exothermic
(heat-producing) reaction of the hot chips with oxygen
in the atmosphere
 When heat generated due to exothermic reaction is
high, chips can melt

Tempering
 Excessive temperature rise in grinding can cause
tempering and softening of the workpiece surface

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The Grinding Process
Burning
 Excessive temperature during grinding may burn the
workpiece surface
 A burn is characterized by a bluish color on ground
steel surfaces

Heat Cracking
 High temperatures in grinding may cause the
workpiece surface to develop cracks

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding-wheel Wear
Attritious Grain Wear
 Similar to flank wear in cutting tools
 Cutting edges become dull and develop a wear flat
 Selection of abrasive is based on the reactivity of the
grain, workpiece hardness and toughness

Grain Fracture
 The grain should fracture at a moderate rate
 So that new sharp cutting edges are produced
continuously during grinding

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Ratio
 Grinding ratio is defined as

Volume of material removed

G
Volume of wheel wear

 Higher the force, greater the tendency for the grains to

fracture
 Higher the wheel wear, lower the grinding ratio

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Ratio
EXAMPLE 26.2
Action of a Grinding Wheel
A surface-grinding operation is being carried out with the
wheel running at a constant spindle speed. Will the wheel
act soft or hard as the wheel wears down over time?
Assume that the depth of cut, d, remains constant and the
wheel is dressed periodically.

As D becomes smaller, the relative grain force increases,

the wheel acts softer

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The Grinding Process:
Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding
Wheels
 Dressing is the process of:
1. Conditioning
2. Truing
 Dressing is required for dulls wheel or when the wheel
becomes loaded
 Loading occurs when the porosities on the wheel
surfaces become filled with chips from the workpiece
 Dressing techniques and their frequency affect grinding
forces and workpiece surface finish
 Grinding wheels can be shaped to the form to be
ground on the workpiece
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The Grinding Process:
Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding
Wheels

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The Grinding Process:
Grindability of Materials and Wheel
Selection
 Grindability of materials is a general indicator of how
easy it is to grind a material
 Include quality of the surface produced, surface finish,
surface integrity, wheel wear, cycle time, and overall
economics of the operation
 Wheel selection involves shape of the wheel, shape of
the part to be produced and characteristics of the
workpiece material

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

 Selection of a grinding process and machine depends

on the workpiece shape and features, size, ease of
fixturing, and production rate required
 Relative movement of the wheel may be along the
surface of the workpiece or move radially into the
workpiece

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Surface Grinding
 Surface grinding involve the grinding of flat surfaces
 Workpiece is secured on a magnetic chuck attached to
the worktable of the grinder
 Traverse grinding is where the table reciprocates
longitudinally and is fed laterally after each stroke.
 In plunge grinding, it involves the wheel moving
radically into the workpiece
 Vertical spindles and rotary tables allow a number of
pieces to be ground in one setup

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Cylindrical Grinding
 The external cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of
workpieces are ground
 Rotating cylindrical workpiece reciprocates laterally
along its axis to cover the width to be ground
 Capable of grinding rolls with large diameter

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Cylindrical Grinding
 Can also produce shapes in which the wheel is dressed
to the workpiece form to be ground
 Non-cylindrical parts can be ground on rotating
workpieces
 Workpiece spindle speed is synchronized between the
workpiece and the wheel axis

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Cylindrical Grinding
 Thread grinding is done on cylindrical grinders using
specially dressed wheels matching the shape of the
threads

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

EXAMPLE 26.3
Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding
 Cycle patterns for a CNC precision grinder

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Internal Grinding
 A small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of
the part
 Internal profiles is ground with profile-dressed wheels
that move radially into the workpiece

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Centerless Grinding
 A high-production process for continuously grinding
cylindrical surfaces
 Workpiece is supported by a blade
 Parts with variable diameters can be ground by
centerless grinding called infeed or plunge grinding

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Centerless Grinding
 In internal centerless grinding, the workpiece is
supported between three rolls and is ground internally

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Creep-feed Grinding
 Grinding can also be used for large-scale metal-
removal operations to compete with milling, broaching
and planing
 In creep-feed grinding, the wheel depth of cut, d, is
large and the workpiece speed is low
 To keep workpiece temperatures low and improve
surface finish, the wheels are softer grade resin bonded
and have an open structure

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

EXAMPLE 26.4
Grinding versus Hard Turning
 Dimensional tolerances and surface finish in hard
turning approaching to those obtained with grinding
 Turning requires much less energy than grinding
 Cutting fluids not necessary and the machine tools are
less expensive
 Work-holding devices for large and slender workpieces
for hard turning is a problem
 Tool wear and its control is also a problem

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Other Grinding Operations

 Universal tool and cutter grinders are used for grinding
single-point or multipoint tools
 Tool-post grinders are self-contained units and attached
to the tool post of a lathe
 Swing-frame grinders are used in foundries for grinding
large castings
 Portable grinders are driven pneumatically or
electrically
 Bench and pedestal grinders are used for the routine
offhand grinding of tools and small parts

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines

Grinding Fluids
 Importance of using a fluid:
1. Reduces temperature rise in the workpiece
2. Improves part surface finish and dimensional accuracy
3. Improves the efficiency of the operation
 Grinding fluids are
water-based emulsions for
grinding and oils for
thread grinding

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter

 Chatter adversely affects surface finish and wheel

performance
 Chatter marks on ground surfaces can be identified
from:
1. Bearings and spindles of the grinding machine
2. Non-uniformities in the grinding wheel
3. Uneven wheel wear
4. Poor dressing techniques
5. Using grinding wheels that are not balanced properly
6. External sources

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter

 Ways to reduce the tendency for chatter in grinding:

1. Using soft-grade wheels
2. Dressing the wheel frequently
3. Changing dressing techniques
4. Reducing the material-removal rate
5. Supporting the workpiece rigidly

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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter

Safety in Grinding Operations

 Grinding wheels are brittle and when rotate at high
speeds, they can fracture and cause serious injury
 There must be care in handling, storage and usage of
grinding wheels
 Damage to a grinding wheel can reduce its bursting
speed severely

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Design Considerations for
Grinding
 Specific attention should be given to:
1. Parts should be designed so that they can be mounted
securely
2. Interrupted surfaces should be avoided as they can
cause vibrations and chatter
3. Parts for cylindrical grinding should be balanced
4. Short pieces should be avoided as they may be difficult
to grind
5. Design kept simple to avoid frequent form dressing of
the wheel
6. Holes should be avoided
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Ultrasonic Machining
 Material is removed from a surface by microchipping
and erosion with loose, fine abrasive grains in a water
slurry
 Best suited for materials that are hard and brittle
 Form tool is required for each shape to be produced
 Materials for abrasive grains are boron carbide,
aluminum oxide or silicon carbide

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Ultrasonic Machining
Rotary Ultrasonic Machining
 Abrasive slurry is replaced by metal-bonded diamond
abrasives either impregnated or electroplated on the
tool surface
 Tool is vibrated ultrasonically and rotated at the same
time
 It is being pressed against the workpiece surface at a
constant pressure

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Ultrasonic Machining
Design Considerations for Ultrasonic Machining
 Basic design guidelines:
1. Avoid sharp profiles, corners, and radii
2. Holes produced will have some taper
3. Bottom of the parts should have a backup plate

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Finishing Operations
Coated Abrasives
 Coated abrasives are made of aluminum oxide, silicon
carbide and zirconia alumina
 Coated abrasives have more open structure than the
abrasives on grinding wheels
 They are used to finish flat or curved surfaces of
metallic and nonmetallic parts, metallographic
specimens, and in woodworking

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Finishing Operations
Belt Grinding
 Used as belts for high-rate material removal with good
surface finish
 Replace conventional grinding operations
 Microreplication perform more consistently than
conventional coated abrasives and the temperatures
involved are lower

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Finishing Operations
EXAMPLE 26.5
Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes
 Turbine nozzle vanes shown
 The vanes were mounted on a fixture and ground dry at
a belt surface speed of 1,800 m/min

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Finishing Operations
Wire Brushing
 Also called power brushing
 The workpiece is held against a circular wire brush that
rotates
 Wire brushing is used to produce a fine or controlled
surface texture

Honing
 Used to improve the surface finish of holes
 Tool has a reciprocating axial motion and produces a
crosshatched pattern on the surface of the hole
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Finishing Operations
Superfinishing
 Light pressure is applied and the motion of the honing
stone has a short stroke
 Motion of the stone is controlled so that the grains do
not travel along the same path on the surface

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Finishing Operations
Lapping
 Used for finishing flat, cylindrical, or curved surfaces
 The lap is soft and porous and is made of cast iron,
copper, leather or cloth
 The abrasive particles are embedded in the lap or
carried in a slurry

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Finishing Operations
Polishing
 A process that produces a smooth, lustrous surface
finish
 Softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional
heating and fine scale abrasive removal from the
workpiece surface
 Produce shiny appearance of polished surfaces

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Finishing Operations
Chemical–mechanical Polishing
 Uses a suspension of abrasive particles in a water-
based solution with a controlled corrosion
 Removes material from the workpiece through
combined abrasion and corrosion effects
 Major application of this process is the polishing of
silicon wafers

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Finishing Operations
Electropolishing
 Mirrorlike finishes can be obtained on metal surfaces
 No mechanical contact with the workpiece
 For polishing irregular shapes

Polishing in Magnetic Fields

 2 basic polishing methods:
1. Magnetic-float
2. Magnetic-field-assisted

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Deburring Operations
 Burrs are thin ridges developed along the edges of a
workpiece from operations
 Burrs can be detected by simple means or visual
inspection
 Burrs have several disadvantages:
1. Jam and misalignment of parts,
2. Safety hazard to personnel
3. Reduce the fatigue life of components
4. Sheet metal have lower bend ability

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Deburring Operations
 Deburring operations include:
1. Manual deburring with files and scrapers
2. Mechanical deburring by machining pieces
3. Wire brushing
4. Using abrasive belts
5. Ultrasonic machining
6. Electropolishing
7. Electrochemical machining
8. Magnetic–abrasive finishing
9. Vibratory finishing
10. Shot blasting or abrasive blasting

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Deburring Operations
Vibratory and Barrel Finishing
 Used to remove burrs from large numbers of relatively
small workpieces
 Container is vibrated or tumbled by various mechanical
means
 Impact of individual abrasives and metal particles
removes the burrs and sharp edges from the parts
 Can be a dry or a wet process

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Deburring Operations
Shot Blasting
 Also called grit blasting
 Involves abrasive particles propelling by a high-velocity
jet of air, or by a rotating wheel, onto the surface of the
workpiece
 Surface damage can result if the process parameters
are not controlled
 Microabrasive blasting consists of small-scale
polishing and etching on bench-type units

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Deburring Operations
Abrasive-flow Machining
 Involves the use of abrasive grains that are mixed in a
putty-like matrix
 Movement of the abrasive matrix under pressure
erodes away both burrs and sharp corners and
polishes the part

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Deburring Operations
Thermal Energy Deburring
 Consist of placing the part in a chamber and injected
with a mixture of natural gas and oxygen
 Drawbacks to the process:
1. Larger burrs tend to form
2. Thin and slender parts may distort
3. Does not polish or buff the workpiece surfaces

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Deburring Operations
Robotic Deburring
 Deburring and flash removal by programmable robots
 Using a force-feedback system for controlling the path
and rate of burr removal
 Eliminates tedious and expensive manual labor

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Economics of Abrasive
Machining
and Finishing Operations
 Abrasive machining and finishing operations are
necessary to achieve high enough dimensional
accuracy or good-quality surface finishes
 Abrasive processes are used both as a finishing
process and as a large-scale material-removal
operation
 As the surface-finish requirement increases, more
operations are needed and cost increases further
 Total cost of abrasive operations depends on part size,
shape, surface finish, dimensional accuracy, machinery,
tooling and labor involved

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Economics of Abrasive
Machining
and Finishing Operations

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