GENERAL SCIENCE &

ABILITY
Natural Hazards + Montreal Protocol + Kyoto Protocol + Paris Agreement
 NATURAL HAZARDS
Natural hazards are natural phenomena or processes that
pose a threat to human life and property. These events can
cause significant damage and destruction, leading to loss of
life, injury, and economic impact. Natural hazards can take
various forms and are caused by geological, meteorological,
hydrological, and other natural factors. Some common types
of naturalEarthquakes
hazards include: Droughts
Volcanic eruptions Wildfires
Floods Tsunamis
Hurricanes/Cyclones Avalanches
Tornados Heatwaves
Landslides
 EARTHQUAKE
• A sudden and violent shaking of the
ground due to movement of tectonic
plates in lithosphere releasing energy
in the Earth’s crust
• Volcanic eruptions may also cause
Earthquakes
• Effects include Earth shaking, Surface
rupture, tsunamis, landslides, etc.
• Seismometer, seismograph, Richter Read Tectonic Plate Theory
also
Scale
 VOLCANIC ERUPTION
• sill, also called sheet, flat
intrusion of igneous rock that
forms between preexisting
layers of rock.
• A laccolith is a type of igneous
intrusion, formed when magma
forces its way upwards through
the Earth's crust but cools and
solidifies before reaching the
surface.
• batholith, large body of igneous
rock formed beneath the Earth's
surface by the intrusion and
solidification of magma
• Molten rocks are called magma
when inside the Earth and lava
outside.
• Eruption results in Lava through
 HURRICANE/TYPHOONS/CYCLONS
• A hurricane is a powerful and destructive tropical • Definition
cyclone that forms over warm ocean waters in
tropical and subtropical regions. Hurricanes are
• Formation
known by different names in different parts of the • Structure
world; in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific, they are • Categories
called hurricanes, while in the western North Pacific, • Impact
they are called typhoons, and in the South Pacific •
and Indian Ocean, they are known as cyclones.
Preparedness
• Warm Ocean Waters: Hurricanes form over warm
ocean waters (typically above 26.5°C or 80°F) when
warm, moist air rises and creates an area of low
pressure below.
• Coriolis Effect: The Earth's rotation causes the
developing storm to spin. In the Northern
Hemisphere, hurricanes rotate counterclockwise,
while in the Southern Hemisphere, they rotate
clockwise.
 HURRICANE/TYPHOONS/CYCLONS
1.Eye: The center of the hurricane is called the eye. It is
a relatively calm, clear area with light winds and often
a clear sky.
2.Eyewall: Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, where
the most intense winds and rainfall occur. The eyewall
is the most dangerous part of the hurricane.
3.Rainbands: Bands of clouds and thunderstorms spiral
outward from the eyewall, producing heavy rainfall and
strong winds.
4.Categories:
• Category 1: Wind speeds of 74-95 mph (119-153 km/h)
• Category 2: Wind speeds of 96-110 mph (154-177 km/h)
• Category 3: Wind speeds of 111-129 mph (178-208 km/h)
• Category 4: Wind speeds of 130-156 mph (209-251 km/h)
• Category 5: Wind speeds of 157 mph or higher (252 km/h
or higher)
 TORNADOS
• Tornadoes are violent windstorms characterized by • Definition
a twisting, funnel-shaped cloud. • Formation
• Formation: • Structure
• Thunderstorms: Tornadoes develop within severe • Categories
thunderstorms. The conditions that favor tornado • Impact
formation include warm, moist air near the ground and •
cool, dry air above, creating instability in the
Preparedness
atmosphere.
• Wind Shear: Tornadoes are created by wind shear,
which means winds at different altitudes blowing in
different directions or at different speeds. Wind shear
can cause the rotating updraft of a thunderstorm to tilt,
leading to the formation of a tornado.
• Structure:
• Funnel Cloud
• Dust/Debris
 TORNADO
• Intensity:
• Tornadoes are categorized on the Enhanced Fujita (EF)
scale, ranging from EF0 (weakest) to EF5 (strongest),
based on the estimated wind speeds and resulting damage.
• EF0: Wind speeds 65-85 mph (105-137 km/h)
• EF1: Wind speeds 86-110 mph (138-177 km/h)
• EF2: Wind speeds 111-135 mph (178-218 km/h)
• EF3: Wind speeds 136-165 mph (219-266 km/h)
• EF4: Wind speeds 166-200 mph (267-322 km/h)
• EF5: Wind speeds over 200 mph (322 km/h)
 LANDSLIDE
• A landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope
under the influence of gravity.
• Causes
• Reduced Soil Cohesion due to rain/water seepage
• Slope instability
• Earthquakes
• Human activities (Deforestation, construction activities, mining, irrigation,
etc.)
• Types of Landslides:
1.Rockfall: Individual rocks or blocks of rocks fall freely through the air.
2.Rockslide: Blocks of rock slide downhill, often along fractures or bedding planes.
3.Debris Flow: Rapid movement of a mix of water, rock, soil, and organic material down a
slope.
4.Mudflow: Similar to debris flow but consists mostly of water and fine-grained sediments.
5.Earthflow: Slow to moderately rapid movement of fine-grained material saturated with
water.
 DROUGHTS
• Droughts are prolonged periods of abnormally low
precipitation, leading to water shortages and, in turn,
adverse impacts on ecosystems, agriculture, and society.
• Causes:
• Meteorological factors
• Climate Change
• Over extraction of water
• Deforestation
• Impacts
• Agriculture
• Water Supply
• Ecosystem
• Economic Loss
• Social impact
 WILDFIRE
• Wildfires, also known as forest fires or bushfires, are
uncontrolled fires that spread rapidly,
• Causes:
• Dry conditions
• High Temperatures
• Wind
• Lightening
• Human activities
• Impacts:
• Loss of life
• Property damage
• Environmental damage
• Air Quality
• Economic impact
 WILDFIRE
• Types:
• Crown Fire: A fire that spreads from treetop to treetop, often
driven by wind, is particularly difficult to control.
• Ground Fire: Fire that burns in the organic layer of soil, often
smoldering for long periods and difficult to extinguish
completely.
• Surface Fire: Fire that burns along the forest floor,
consuming litter and understory vegetation.
 TSUNAMI
• A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves generated by
underwater disturbances, typically associated with
seismic activity, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, or underwater landslides. Tsunamis can travel
across entire ocean basins, reaching coastlines
thousands of miles away from their source. Here are key
points about tsunamis:
• Causes (earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions)
• Characteristics (Wave length upto 800Km/h, amplitude )
• Impacts (Coastal inundation, destruction of property, loss of life, economic
loss, etc)
• Warning system
 AVALANCHE
• An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow, ice, and debris down a
mountain slope.
• Triggers:
• Snowpack instability
• Slope steepness (30 to 45 degrees, the most dangerous slope)
• Weather conditions (Heavy snowfall, rain on snow, rapid temperature
changes)
• Human activities (skiing, snowboarding, snowmobiling, and hiking)
• Types:
• Slab Avalanche (a layer of snow detaches and slides over another layer)
• Powder Avalanches (loose, powdery snow avalanches)
• Wet Avalanches: Wet avalanches happen when there is a layer of
water-saturated snow beneath a drier layer.
• Impact (loss of life, property loss, rescue operations, road structure
damage)
 HEATWAVE
• A heatwave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather,
which may be accompanied by high humidity.
• Causes:
• High Pressure systems (Heatwaves often occur when high-
pressure systems trap warm air in an area)
• Climate Change
• Urban Heat island effect (Urban areas with concrete and
asphalt can absorb and retain heat, causing temperatures to
be higher than surrounding rural areas. )
• Impacts (Dehydration, Health risks, Agricultural impact, water
shortages, wildfires, energy demands)
• Mitigation (Public awareness, cooling centers, early warning
system, emergency response)
INTERNATIONAL
AGREMENTS TO
PROTECT
ENVIRONMENT
 THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL
• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is
an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing
out the production and consumption of numerous substances
responsible for ozone depletion. It was negotiated and adopted in
Montreal, Canada, in 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989.
• Key Points
• Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS): (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
halons, carbon tetrachloride, and other chemicals that contain chlorine
and bromine, mostly used in refrigerators, aerosol propellants, foam
blowing agents)
• Ozone Layer Protection
• Phasing out ODS
• Success (Great, resulted in gradual recovery of Ozone layer)
 THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
• The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty aimed at addressing
global climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It
was adopted on December 11, 1997, in Kyoto, Japan, and
entered into force on February 16, 2005. The protocol is an
extension of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) and sets binding emission reduction
targets for developed countries, also known as Annex I countries.
• This protocol got based on an international agreement –
UNFCCC of 1992. And therefore, it took shape in 1997 and
came into effect in February 2005. A total of 192 members
sanctioned the treaty by the end of 2012. The global community
required only developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions based on various responsibilities.
 THE KYOTO PROTOCOL/KEY
POINTS
• Emission Reduction Targets: The protocol sets legally binding
emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and
economies in transition (Annex I countries and economies in
transition) for the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012.
These targets varied for each country, with an average reduction of
5% below 1990 levels.
• Flexible Mechanisms: The Kyoto Protocol introduced three
market-based mechanisms to help countries meet their emission
reduction targets:
• Emissions Trading: Countries could buy and sell emission allowances.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Annex I countries could invest
in emission reduction projects in developing countries and receive Certified
Emission Reduction (CER) credits.
• Joint Implementation (JI): Annex I countries could invest in emission
reduction projects in other Annex I countries and receive Emission
Reduction Units (ERUs).
 REASONS FOR FAILURE OF
KYOTO PROTOCOL
• Exclusion of developing countries like China, India and others
producing a lot more GHG emissions

• USA, a developed country and a major emitter didn’t ratify it

• No penalty against the violators

• Carbon credits trading was criticized having a fraud element

 PARIS AGREEMENT
• The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty
adopted in 2015 under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It aims to address
and mitigate climate change by limiting global warming to
well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with
efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees
Celsius.
• Key Points:
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
• Global Temperature Goals
• Adaptation to impacts of climate change
• Mitigation efforts by developed and developing countries
• Financial support
• Accountability, a global stocktake every five years