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Unit 4

Uploaded by

bhupeshshrestha111
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Unit 4: Measurement, Scaling and Sampling

•Variables (independent, dependent and moderating) and


•measurement scale (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio );
•Nature of measurement;
•Scale construction for attitude measurement;
•Scales commonly used in business research (rank, order, rating scale,
semantic differential scale, likert scale);
•Validity and reliability of measurement; Sources of measurement
problems;
Contd..
•Sampling process;
•Types of sampling -probability sampling (simple random, systematic,
stratified and cluster) and
• non-probability sampling(convenience, judgmental and quota);
• Sampling and non- sampling errors;
•Determination of sample size.
Variables (independent, dependent and
moderating
• What is the variable in research?
• A variable is a characteristic, property, or factor that can take on
different values or categories. Variables represent the elements or
conditions that researchers observe, measure, or manipulate to study
their relationships and effects.
Types of Variables

• Variables are classified based on their role in a research study and the
relationships they represent. Here are the main types:
• Independent Variable (IV)
• Definition: The variable that the researcher manipulates or controls
to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
• Purpose: It is the cause or influencing factor in the study.
• Example:
• In a study of "Exercise and Weight Loss," exercise (e.g., duration, frequency)
is the independent variable.
Contd..
• Dependent Variable (DV)
• Definition: The variable that the researcher measures or observes to
see the effect of changes in the independent variable.
• Purpose: It is the outcome or effect in the study.
• Example:
• In the same study on "Exercise and Weight Loss," weight loss is the
dependent variable.
Cont..
• Moderating Variable
• Definition: A variable that influences the strength or direction of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
• Purpose: To explain "when" or "under what conditions" the IV affects
the DV.
• Example:
• In a study on "Training and Job Performance," motivation may act as a
moderator. Training improves job performance more for highly motivated
employees.
Contd..
• Intervening Variable (Mediating Variable)
• Definition: A variable that explains how or why the independent
variable influences the dependent variable.
• Purpose: To identify the mechanism or process linking the IV and DV.
• Example:
• In a study on "Training and Job Performance," motivation can act as an
intervening variable. Training increases motivation, which in turn improves
job performance.
Contd..
• Control Variable
• Definition: Variables that are kept constant or controlled to ensure
they do not affect the outcome of the study.
• Purpose: To isolate the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
• Example:
• In a study on "Impact of Study Time on Exam Performance," factors like the
difficulty level of the exam or the teaching quality are control variables.
Contd..
• Extraneous Variable
• Definition: Variables that are not intentionally studied but may affect
the dependent variable.
• Purpose: To recognize potential influences and account for them to
avoid biased results.
• Example:
• In a study on "Diet and Weight Loss," factors like age, stress, or sleep patterns
could act as extraneous variables.
Contd..
• Confounding Variable
• Definition: A specific type of extraneous variable that is related to
both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting
the observed relationship.
• Purpose: To identify and control factors that might create false
correlations.
• Example:
• In a study on "Coffee Consumption and Productivity," sleep quality might be a
confounding variable that affects both coffee consumption and productivity.
Contd..
• Importance of Variables in Research
• Framework for Study: Variables define the structure of a research
study.
• Understanding Relationships: They help in identifying cause-and-
effect relationships.
• Data Collection and Analysis: Clear definition of variables guides data
collection and statistical analysis.
Concept of Measurement

• Measurement refers to the process of assigning numbers or labels to


variables according to specific rules or standards. The primary
objective of measurement is to quantify the characteristics,
attributes, or phenomena under study in a systematic and consistent
way. It helps researchers gather empirical data and test hypotheses by
ensuring that data is reliable, valid, and accurate.
• For example, measuring employees' attitudes toward E-HRM would
involve quantifying their opinions, feelings, and behaviors related to
specific E-HRM tools and practices.
Nature of Measurement

1.Objective and Systematic


Measurement is based on clear, precise, and replicable procedures
that can be followed by other researchers to obtain similar results.
2.Quantitative and Qualitative Elements
Quantitative Measurement: Involves assigning numerical values
(e.g., Likert Scale ratings).
Qualitative Measurement: Sometimes, it includes words or
descriptions rather than numbers (e.g., interviews, open-ended
surveys).
Contd..
3.Standardized Process
Measurement requires established standards and methods to ensure
consistency across time, people, and different research contexts.
4.Reliable and Valid
• Reliability: The extent to which a measurement tool provides stable
and consistent results.
• Validity: The extent to which a measurement truly captures the
concept it is intended to measure.
Types of Measurement scale
Measurement scales are crucial in research because they
determine how data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted. There are
four primary types of measurement scales:
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio.
Each of these scales serves a different purpose and is suited to
different types of research questions and data.
Nominal Scale

• A nominal scale categorizes data into distinct groups or categories


that do not have a specific order or rank.
• It simply labels variables without implying any quantitative value or
comparison.
• Characteristics
• Categorical: Data is divided into mutually exclusive categories.
• No mathematical interpretation (e.g., no addition, subtraction).
• Often used for classification and identification.
Contd..
• Examples
• Gender: Male / Female
• Job Titles: Manager / Assistant / Supervisor
• Types of Banks
• Country Names
• Marital Status: Single / Married / Divorced
Ordinal Scale

• An ordinal scale measures data that has a meaningful order but the
interval between categories is not necessarily equal.
• It indicates a ranking of variables but does not measure the exact
differences between them.
• Characteristics
• Provides order or hierarchy but lacks precise measurement of the
intervals between values.
• Often used in attitude scales, customer satisfaction, rankings, and
performance levels.
Contd..
• Examples
• Customer Satisfaction Levels: Very Dissatisfied / Dissatisfied /
Neutral / Satisfied / Very Satisfied
• Education Levels: High School, Bachelor's, Master’s, Doctorate
• Employee Performance Ratings: Poor / Satisfactory / Good / Excellent
Interval Scale

• An interval scale measures variables where the difference between


values is meaningful and consistent, but there is no true zero point.
• In simpler terms, the intervals between each value are equal, but ratios
are not meaningful.
• Characteristics
• Quantitative
• Suitable for measuring attitudes, test scores, and cognitive
assessments.
• Allows for addition and subtraction but not multiplication or division.
Contd..
• Examples
• Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit
• IQ Scores
• Date of Birth (in calendar years)
• Attitude or Satisfaction Surveys (Likert Scale data)
Ratio Scale

• A ratio scale is the highest level of measurement and contains a true


zero, meaning that ratios of values are meaningful.
• It allows all mathematical operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division).
• Characteristics
• The zero point indicates the absence of the attribute.
• Suitable for precise measurement and comparison of quantitative
data.
Contd..
• Examples
• Income: $0, $5000, $10000
• Age: 0 years, 25 years
• Working Hours: 0 hours, 40 hours
• Sales Revenue: In dollars
• Number of Employees in a Bank
Comparison of Measurement Scales

Comparison of Measurement Scales

Mathematical
Measurement Scale Nature Order Zero Point
Operations
Nominal Categorical No No None
Ordinal Ordered Categorical Yes No Ranking only
Quantitative (No Addition and
Interval Yes No
Zero) Subtraction
All arithmetic
Ratio Quantitative Yes Yes
operations
Scale construction for attitude measurement;

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