EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biolo
gy/hs-biology-foundations/hs-biology-and-the-scientific-
method/v/introduction-to-experimental-design
Experimental design ensures that an experiment is set up
in a way that the results are reliable, valid, and can be
attributed to the changes made by the researcher.
Experimental design is a method used to plan and
structure experiments in a way that allows researchers to
test a hypothesis, measure outcomes, and draw
conclusions. The goal is to identify cause-and-effect
relationships between variables
Variables
• Independent variable: The factor you change or
manipulate (e.g., type of fertilizer).
• Dependent variable: The outcome or effect you
measure (e.g., plant growth).
• Confounding variable: unwanted variable that may
influence the dependent variable, affecting results
• Control variables: Factors that are kept the same to
ensure they don’t influence the results (e.g., amount of
water).
Groups
• Experimental group: The group that receives the
treatment (e.g., plants with fertilizer).
• Control group: The group that does not receive the
treatment or receives a standard treatment (e.g., plants
without fertilizer). This helps to compare the effects.
Randomization
Participants or subjects are randomly assigned to
different groups to reduce bias and ensure the groups are
comparable.
Replication
The experiment is repeated several times to ensure the
results are consistent and not due to chance.
Data collection and analysis
After the experiment, data is collected and analyzed to
see if the independent variable (treatment) had a
significant effect on the dependent variable (outcome).
The classification of experimental
designs *

* source: Pandey, P., & Pandey, M. M. (2021). Research methodology tools and techniques. Bridge Center.
Pre-experimental designs
There is no control over extraneous or situation variables
(In an experiment, an extraneous variable is any variable
that is not being investigated but has the potential to
influence the results of a research project.)
When to Use Pre-Experimental
Designs
• Exploratory Research: When exploring a new concept
or treatment and you need initial insights without
investing in a full experiment.
• Pilot Studies: To gather preliminary data that can
guide the design of a more controlled study.
• Constraints on Resources: When time, budget, or
ethical considerations limit the use of true experimental
methods.
Pre-experimental designs
Design No. 0: One-Shot Case Study Design
• Structure: In this design, a single group is exposed to a treatment, and
then the outcome is measured.
• Notation: X → O
• X: Treatment or intervention
• O: Observation or measurement of the outcome after the treatment
• Example: A teacher implements a new teaching method in a classroom
and measures students' performance afterward. There is no pre-test or
control group for comparison, so it's unclear if changes in performance
are due to the teaching method or other factors.
• Limitations: This design has significant validity threats, as it lacks a
pre-test and control group. You cannot conclude that the outcome is a
result of the intervention alone.
Pre-experimental designs

This study lacks a control group, making it difficult to

determine if the results are due to treatment or
extraneous variables
Pre-experimental designs –
Design No.1
Imagine a researcher wants to test the effectiveness of a new study
skills workshop for improving student test scores.
Steps in the One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design:
1.Pretest: The researcher gives a test to a group of students to assess their
current study skills knowledge.
2.Intervention: The students attend a study skills workshop aimed at
improving their techniques and understanding.
3.Posttest: After the workshop, the researcher administers the same test to the
students to measure any improvement in their knowledge or skills.
By comparing the pretest and posttest scores, the researcher can
observe any changes in the students' study skills. However, since there
is no control group, other factors (like motivation or additional study)
could have contributed to any changes observed, so causality cannot
be definitively established.
Pre-experimental designs -
Design No.1
• Example: A manager wants to test a new training
program. The manager assesses employees’ skills
before the training, conducts the training program, and
then measures the employees' skills again afterward.
• Limitations: While this design allows comparison
between pre- and post-intervention, it still lacks a
control group. Changes in the outcome could be due to
factors like maturation or external events rather than
the intervention itself.
Pre-experimental designs -
Design No.2

The two groups are not selected randomly or based on

matching. The lack of a pre-test prevents the researcher
from measuring treatment-related differences. This
design compares post-test results in experimental and
control groups.
Pre-experimental designs -
Design No.2
Imagine a researcher wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a new reading
program designed to improve literacy skills among middle school students.
Steps in the Two-Group Static Design:
1.Select two existing groups of students: The researcher selects two similar classes,
where one is designated as the experimental group and the other as the control group.
2.Implement the treatment: The experimental group participates in the new reading
program, while the control group continues with the standard curriculum.
3.Posttest measurement: At the end of the program, the researcher administers a
reading comprehension test to both groups.
4.Compare results: The researcher compares the posttest scores of the experimental
group and the control group to see if there was any improvement in reading
comprehension due to the program.
While the researcher can observe any differences in performance, the lack of
random assignment means there could be other pre-existing differences
between the groups (such as motivation or prior reading ability) that impact the
results.
Pre-experimental designs -
Design No.2
• Example: A researcher introduces a new product
feature to one group of customers and not to another,
then measures customer satisfaction in both groups
afterward.
• Limitations: Since there is no pre-test, it’s hard to
confirm that any differences in the outcomes are due
solely to the treatment. Differences might have pre-
existed between the two groups.
Strengths and Limitations of
Pre-Experimental Designs
• Strengths:
• Simple and Cost-Effective: These designs are easy to implement and
require minimal resources.
• Exploratory Insights: Useful for testing hypotheses or interventions on a
preliminary basis before conducting a more rigorous study.
• Quick Results: Suitable for early-stage research when rapid results are
needed.
• Limitations:
• Lacks Randomization: Without random assignment, there is a risk that
differences between groups (if any) may bias the results.
• No Control Over Extraneous Variables: Many factors beyond the
treatment can influence the outcome, making it difficult to establish causality.
• Low Internal Validity: The designs are prone to threats such as history,
maturation, testing effects, and selection bias.
Notation
• M: Matching subjects on relevant characteristics.
• R: Random assignment to groups
• X: Treatment or intervention (only for the experimental
group)
• O: Test measurement
True-experimental designs -
Design No.3
Researcher attempts to control the effects of testing,
measuring instruments etc.

Experimental Group: R → X → O
Control Group: R→—→O
True-experimental designs -
Design No.3
Imagine a researcher is studying the effect of a new memory-
enhancing drug on adults' memory performance.
Steps in the Two-Group, Randomized Subject, Post-Test Only
Design:
1.Random Assignment: The researcher randomly assigns 100 adults to two
groups of 50. Group A (the experimental group) will receive the memory-
enhancing drug, while Group B (the control group) will receive a placebo.
2.Intervention: Group A takes the drug as prescribed, while Group B takes
the placebo.
3.Posttest Measurement: After a set period, both groups take a memory
test to assess their memory performance.
4.Comparison: The researcher compares the posttest scores of Group A and
Group B to determine if there is a significant difference in memory
performance between the two groups.
True-experimental designs -
Design No.4

Experimental Group: M → R → X → O
Control Group: M→R→—→O
True-experimental designs -
Design No.4
• Imagine researchers are studying the effect of a new
therapy technique on reducing anxiety. They want to
control for factors like initial anxiety levels, age, and
gender to ensure these don’t influence the results. They:
• Match participants into pairs based on their initial anxiety levels,
age, and gender.
• Randomly assign one member of each pair to the experimental
group (receiving the new therapy technique) and the other to the
control group (receiving no therapy or a placebo).
• Measure anxiety levels in both groups after the intervention to
assess its effectiveness.
True-experimental designs -
Design No.5

Experimental Group: R → O1 → X → O2
Control Group: R → O1 → — → O2
Design No.5
• Suppose researchers are studying the effect of a new educational
program on students' math test scores. They:
• Randomly assign students to either the experimental group (receives the
program) or control group (does not receive the program).
• Administer a pre-test to all students to measure their math skills before
the program.
• The experimental group receives the new educational program, while
the control group continues with regular instruction.
• Administer a post-test to all students to measure any changes in math
skills.
• By comparing the pre- and post-test scores between groups,
researchers can determine if the program had a significant
impact on math performance.
True-experimental designs -
Design No.6

Group 1: R → O1 → X → O2
Group 2: R→ X → O2
Group 3: R → O1 → O2
Design No.6
• Suppose researchers are testing a new training program’s
effect on job performance. The design would be structured as
follows:
• Group 1 takes a pre-test, completes the training program (treatment),
and then takes a post-test.
• Group 2 skips the pre-test, completes the training program, and then
takes a post-test.
• Group 3 takes the pre-test, does not complete the training, and then
takes the post-test.
• This setup enables researchers to isolate the effect of the
training program itself (comparing post-test scores across
groups) and also observe whether the pre-test influenced
participants' responses to the training.
Design No.6
The Solomon Three-Group Design is useful when there is
concern that pre-testing might affect participants'
responses to the treatment. By isolating the effects of the
pre-test, treatment, and their interaction, this design
provides a clearer picture of the true effect of the
treatment.
True-experimental designs

Group 1: R → O1 → X → O2
Group 2: R → O1 → → O2
Group 3: R → → X → O2
Group 4: R → → → O2
Design No.7
• Suppose researchers are studying the effect of a new training
program on employee productivity. The design would be set up
as follows:
• Group 1 takes a pre-test, completes the training (treatment), and then
takes a post-test.
• Group 2 takes a pre-test, skips the training, and then takes a post-test.
• Group 3 skips the pre-test, completes the training, and then takes a
post-test.
• Group 4 skips both the pre-test and the training, taking only the post-
test.
• This arrangement allows the researchers to compare results
across all groups to see if any observed differences in post-test
scores are due to the training, the pre-test, or their interaction.
 Factorial Design
Factorial design is a systematic method used in
experiments to evaluate the effects of multiple factors
simultaneously. This design is particularly valuable for
studying interactions between factors, which can provide
a more comprehensive understanding of how variables
influence outcomes. Below, I’ll provide an overview of
factorial design, including its characteristics, benefits,
types, and an example.
 Types of Factorial Design
1. Full Factorial Design: Every possible combination of factors
and levels is tested. For example, a 2x2 design tests two factors,
each at two levels, resulting in four treatment combinations.

2. Fractional Factorial Design: Only a subset of the treatment

combinations is tested. This is useful when resources are limited or
when there are many factors, allowing researchers to focus on the
most significant factors and interactions.

3. Mixed Factorial Design: Combines elements of both fixed and

random effects, accommodating both within-subject and between-
subject factors.
Example of a Factorial Design
• Study Title: The Impact of Fertilizer Type and Watering
Frequency on Plant Growth
• Objective: To assess how different types of fertilizer
and varying watering frequencies affect the growth of
tomato plants.
Example of a Factorial Design
• Factors and Levels:
1.Factor A: Fertilizer Type
1.Level 1 (−): Organic fertilizer
2.Level 2 (+): Chemical fertilizer
2.Factor B: Watering Frequency
1.Level 1 (−): Once a week
2.Level 2 (+): Twice a week
Example of a Factorial Design
• Treatment Combinations:
 (−, −): Organic fertilizer with once-a-week watering
 (−, +): Organic fertilizer with twice-a-week watering
 (+ , −): Chemical fertilizer with once-a-week watering
 (+ , +): Chemical fertilizer with twice-a-week watering
Example of a Factorial Design
• Experimental Design:
1.Participants: 40 tomato plants are randomly assigned
to one of the four treatment combinations, with 10
plants per treatment group.
2.Data Collection: After a predetermined growing
period (e.g., 8 weeks), measure the height of the plants
and record the data.
Example of a Factorial Design
• Analysis: Use ANOVA to analyze the data and assess:
• The main effect of fertilizer type on plant growth.
• The main effect of watering frequency on plant growth.
• The interaction effect between fertilizer type and watering
frequency.
Factorial design is a powerful research method that
allows for an efficient and comprehensive examination of
multiple factors and their interactions. It is widely
applicable across various fields, including agriculture,
psychology, medicine, and industrial processes, making it
a fundamental tool in experimental research. By
employing factorial designs, researchers can derive
meaningful insights and optimize processes based on
their findings.
Types of Factorial Designs
• 2x2 Factorial Design: Two factors with two levels each.
• 3x3 Factorial Design: Two factors with three levels each.
• 2x3 Factorial Design: One factor with two levels, and the
other with three levels.
2x2 Factorial Design
2x2 Factorial Design is a common and straightforward
type of factorial design in experiments. In a 2x2 factorial
design:

• There are two factors (independent variables).

• Each factor has two levels (e.g., high/low, yes/no).
2x2 Factorial Design
Structure of a 2x2 Factorial Design
This design results in four possible combinations, allowing
researchers to observe:

• The main effect of Factor A (e.g., the effect of one variable

on the outcome, regardless of the other variable's level).
• The main effect of Factor B.
• The interaction effect between Factors A and B, which
examines how the combination of levels influences the
outcome.
2x2 Factorial Design
Example
Imagine a study investigating the effects of Exercise Type
(Factor A: aerobic or strength training) and Diet Type (Factor
B: low-carb or high-carb) on weight loss. The four conditions
would be:

• Aerobic exercise + low-carb diet

• Aerobic exercise + high-carb diet
• Strength training + low-carb diet
• Strength training + high-carb diet
3x3 Factorial Design
In a 3x3 factorial design:

• Factor A has three levels (e.g., low, medium, high).

• Factor B also has three levels.

Each combination of Factor A and Factor B is tested, resulting in nine

conditions in total. This allows researchers to observe:

• The main effect of Factor A.

• The main effect of Factor B.
• The interaction effect between Factors A and B.
3x3 Factorial Design
Example
Suppose researchers want to study the effects of Medication Dosage (Factor A: low,
medium, high) and Exercise Intensity (Factor B: none, moderate, intense) on blood
pressure reduction. The nine conditions would be:

• Low dosage + no exercise

• Low dosage + moderate exercise
• Low dosage + intense exercise
• Medium dosage + no exercise
• Medium dosage + moderate exercise
• Medium dosage + intense exercise
• High dosage + no exercise
• High dosage + moderate exercise
• High dosage + intense exercise
2x3 Factorial Design
Structure of a 2x3 Factorial Design
In this design:

• Factor A has two levels (e.g., presence vs. absence of a

treatment).
• Factor B has three levels (e.g., low, medium, and high).
• Each combination of the levels for Factors A and B is
tested, creating six distinct groups or conditions.
2x3 Factorial Design
Example
Suppose researchers are studying the effects of Diet Type (Factor A:
low-carb, high-carb) and Exercise Duration (Factor B: short,
moderate, long) on weight loss. The six conditions would be:

• Low-carb diet + short exercise duration

• Low-carb diet + moderate exercise duration
• Low-carb diet + long exercise duration
• High-carb diet + short exercise duration
• High-carb diet + moderate exercise duration
• High-carb diet + long exercise duration