CHAPTER ONE

ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts
• The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek
words 'psyche' and ‘logos’.
• Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means
study, knowledge or discourse.
• Therefore, by combining the two Greek words the term
"psychology" epistemologically refers to the study of
the mind, soul, or sprit and it is often represented by
the Greek letter ᴪ which read as psy ("sy").
• Different psychologists define psychology differently
based on their intentions, research findings, and
background experiences.
• Nowadays, most of them agree on the following
scientific definition of psychology.
• Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and
mental processes.
• In the above definition, there are three aspects; science
behavior and mental processes:
• Science: psychology uses scientific methods to study behavior
and mental processes in both humans and animals.
• This means psychologists do not study behavior in common
senses rather they follow scientific procedures and use
empirical data to study behavior and mental processes.
• Behavior: refers to all of our outward or overt actions and
reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, movement, etc.
• Mental processes: refer to all the internal, covert activities of
our minds, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.
 Goals of Psychology

Description: Description involves observing the

behavior and noticing everything about it.
• It is a search for answers for the following questions.
• What is happening? Where does it happen?
• To whom does it happen?
• And under what circumstances does it seem to
happen?
• For example, a teacher might notice that a young
freshman girl in his/her general psychology classroom
is behaving oddly.
• She is not turning to her homework, her results are
slipping badly, and she seems to have a very negative
attitude toward the course.
Explanation: Why is it happening?
• Explanation is about trying to find explanations for the observed
behavior.
• This helps in the process of forming theories of behavior (A theory
is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts).
• It is about finding a cause for behavior
• For Example, in the above example, the teacher would most likely
ask : the university counselors to administer some test , her parents
about home background, her friends and the like
• Prediction: prediction is about determining what will
happen in the future.
• In the above example the case of the freshman girl, the
psychologist or counselor would predict (based on
previous research into similar situations) that this girl
may never be able to reach her full learning potential.
• Control: How can it be changed? Control or modify or
change the behavior from undesirable one (such as failing
in school) to a desirable one (such as academic success).
 Major Perspectives in Psychology
• Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm
of the sciences, only about 125 years old.
• It began as a science of its own in 1879 in
Leipzig Germany, with the establishment of
Wundt’s psychology laboratory.
• He developed the technique of objective
introspection.
• After his laboratory, psychology is started as
one field of study and he is called the "father
of modern psychology.”
 Early schools of psychology
Structuralism- structuralism views psychology as a study
of structure of mind.
• It is an expansion of Wundt’s ideas by his student
named Edward Titchener (1867-1927).
• Titchener is the founder of structuralism.
• The goal of structuralists was to find out the units or
elements, which make up the mind such as; sensations,
images, and feelings.
• The best-known method used by them was
introspection “looking within” a procedure aimed at
analyzing the mental experience into three basic mental
elements: images, feelings, and sensations.
• Functionalism: functionalism views psychology
as a study of function of the mind.
• The founder of this school of thought is William
James (1848-1910),
• Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James focused on
how the mind allows people to function in the
real world; how people work, play, and adapt to
their surroundings, a viewpoint he called
functionalism.
• Generally, according to functionalists,
psychological processes are adaptive.
• They allow humans to survive and to adapt
successfully to their surroundings.
Gestalt psychology: Gestalt psychology views
psychology as a study of the whole mind.
• Max Wertheimer and his colleagues founded this
school of thought in Germany in the 20th century.
• Gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is not
made up of combinations of elements.
• The German word "gestalt" refers to form, whole,
configuration or pattern.
• According to them, the mind should be
thought of as a result of the whole pattern of
sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within their pattern.
• In brief, the gestalt psychologists acknowledge
consciousness.
• They held that "the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.
• Means mind is greater than its parts (images,
sensations, and feelings).
Behaviorism
• Behaviorists view psychology as a study of
observable and measurable behaviors.
• John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism and
other proponents include E. Thorndike and F.
Skinner.
• For Watson, psychology was the study of
observable and measurable behavior and nothing
more about hidden mental processes.
• According to Watson, we cannot define
consciousness , we can not define soul; we cannot
locate it or measure it and therefore it is not the
object of scientific study.
• He believed that all behaviors are learned but not
inherited and learners are passive and reactive
(they are not initiating their learning but they
respond when the environment stimulates them).
 Psychoanalysis
Psychology studies about the components of the
unconscious part of the mind.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of this
school of thought.
• He was the most controversial and most popular in
the study of behavior and mental processes.
• The unconscious which is the subject matter of
psychoanalysis contains hidden wishes, passions,
guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict
between desire and duty.
• We are not aware of our unconscious urges and
thoughts and they make themselves known in
dreams, slip of the tongue, apparent accidents
and even jokes.
• He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream
analysis) as a method.
 Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

Developmental psychology
• It studies the physical, cognitive and psychological changes across
the life span.
• In particular, it focuses on the biological and environmental
factors that contribute to human development.
Personality Psychology
• It focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics of
individuals.
• Personality psychologists study topics such as self-concept,
aggression, moral development, etc.
Social Psychology
• deals with people’s social interactions, relationships, social
perception, and attitudes.
Cross-cultural Psychology
• examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought, and
emotion.
• It compares the nature of psychological processes in different
cultures, with a special interest in whether or not psychological
phenomena are universal or culture-specific.
Industrial psychology
• Applies psychological principles in industries and organizations to
increase the productivity of that organization.
Forensic psychology
• applies psychological principles to improve the legal system (police,
Educational Psychology
 Concerned with the application of psychological
principles and theories in improving the educational
process including curriculum, teaching, and
administration of academic programs.
Health Psychology
 Applies psychological principles to the prevention and
treatment of physical illness and diseases.
Clinical Psychology
 is a field that applies psychological principles to the
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological
disorders.
Counseling Psychology : - is a field having the same
concern as clinical psychology but helps individuals
with less severe problems than those treated by
clinical psychologists.
Psychiatry :-is a field that diagnoses and treats
psychological disorders by using medical and
psychological forms of therapy.
 Chapter 2

Sensation and Perception

 Sensation and Perception
Unit 2: Sensations and Perception
• Sensation and perception are the starting points for all
other psychological processes.
• They supply the data we use for learning and
remembering for thinking and problem solving, for
communicating with others, for experiencing emotions,
and for being aware of ourselves.
• Without sensation and perception we would not form
thoughts or feelings.
 Sensation and perception
• While ‘stimulus’ is a source of physical energy that produces
a response in sense organ ‘sensation’ refers to the process by
which an organism responds to the stimulus.
• Sensation is typically the first stage in any biochemical and
neurologic events.
• It begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor
cells of a sensory organ.
• Sensation and perception are the starting points for all
other psychological processes.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception

• To have a better understanding of the subject matter of sensation

and perception, we need to define related basic terms.
1. Stimulus
• It is a source of physical energy that produces a response in the
sense organs.
• The energy could be sound waves, light waves, and heat pressure to
which an organism is capable of responding.
• A sensation is a response to that energy by a sensory system.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
Stimulus and sensation have cause and effect relationship .
The quality of a stimulus refers to the kind of sensation it produces
• Example : Color----- visual stimulation
• Musical pitch------ auditory stimulation
The quantity of a stimulus refers to the amount of stimulus present.
• Example: brightness, loudness
• Stimuli vary in both type and intensity.
• Different types of stimuli activate different sense organs.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception

2. Response
• It is any reaction of an organism to or in the presence of a
stimulus.
• The reaction could be muscular or glandular.
3. Sensation
• It is the process by which an organism’s sense organs respond
to a stimulus.
• It is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells (in the
eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin) sends nerve
impulses to the brain.
• After reaching the brain they are registered as a touch, a
sound, a taste, and a splash of color.
• Hence, sensation can be thought as an organism’s first
encounter with sensory stimuli.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception

4. Transduction: It is the sequence of operation by which physical

energy (example, sound waves, light) is transformed into patterns
of neural impulse that give rise to sensory experience.
• Transduction: represents the first step toward perception and is a
translation process where different types of cells react to stimuli
creating a signal processed by the central nervous system
resulting in what we experience as a sensations.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
5. Perception
• It is the process whereby the brain interprets
sensations, giving information order and
meaning.
• It takes into account experiences stored in our
memory, the context in which the sensation
occurs and our internal state (our emotions and
motivations).
• It is the process of forming hypotheses about
what the senses tell us.
• Example: Hearing sounds and seeing colors are sensory
processes; whereas, listening sweet music and detecting
depth in a two dimensional picture are perceptual
processes.
• Without sensation of some kind perception could not occur.
There are several factors that affect our perception. Some of
these are:
• Context and expectation
• Motivation
• Emotion
• Values, culture and personality
Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
6. Absolute threshold
• It is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be
detected.
• For a stimulus to be detected by our sense organs it must become strong
enough.
The following research findings on absolute threshold are taken from the
works of Galanter (1962) as cited in (Feldman, 1996)
• Sight : a candle flame can be seen 30 miles away on a dark, clear night.
• Hearing : the ticking of a watch can be heard 20 feet away under quiet
conditions.
• Taste : A teaspoon of sugar can be detected in nine liters of water
• Smell : A drop of perfume can be detected when one drop is present in a
three room apartment.
• Touch: The falling of a bee’s wing from a distance of one centimeter can
be felt on a cheek
Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
7. Difference threshold
• It is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
• A noticeable difference depends on the value of the initial
intensity of the stimulus.
• Example: When the moon is seen in the late afternoon, it appears
relatively dim. When it is seen in the dark, it seems quite bright.
• Weber’s law: The law states that ‘the just noticeable difference is
in constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus.”
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
• Weber’s law in psychophysics explains the relationship between
changes in the original value of a stimulus and the degree to which
the change will be noticed.
• Example: If a one-pound increase in a ten-pound weight produces a
just noticeable difference, it would take a ten-pound increase to
produce a noticeable difference in a hundred pounds.
• The noticeable difference in the case of loudness becomes larger for
sounds that are initially loud than for sounds that are initially soft.
• Example: A person in a quiet room is more sensitive to the ringing
of a telephone than a person in a noisy room.
• In order to produce the same amount of sensitivity in a noisy room,
the ring has to be very loud.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
8. Sensory Adaptation
• Adaptation : refers to the decreasing response of the sense
organs, the more they are exposed to a continuous level of
stimulation.
• For example, the continuous stimulation of glasses, jewelry, or
clothes on your skin results in adaptation so that soon you no
longer feel them.
• Some sense organs adapt very quickly, and some very slowly.
• However, sense organs do not adapt to intense forms of
stimulation, because such stimulation may cause physical
damage.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception

9. Attention (Selectivity of Perception )

• Note that at any given time, your sense organ is bombarded by
many stimuli.
• Yet you perceive a few of them.
• Were you aware of, for example, the noise in your room until you
read this sentence? You may not.
• Yet input from the environment was coming into your ears all the
time. In fact you may be attending to one of such incoming input
ignoring the other noises.
• Such selective perception is called attention.
• Attention is therefore the term given to the perceptual process that
selects certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience, or
awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
• What does this selectivity of perception imply?
• Attention : is a general term referring to the selective aspects of
perception which function so that any instant an organism focuses
on certain features of the environment to the exclusion of other
features.
• A factor of importance in the study of perception is attention.

• Human beings are constantly encountered with stimuli from the

environment in which they live; but they use only a very small
portion of this information.
• Selective Attention : enables them to sort out and process this
information.
 Basic Terms and Concepts Related to Sensation and Perception
• In this operation we can distinguish between controlled and
automatic processing.
• Controlled processing is serial; one thing is processed after
another.
• Automatic processing is parallel.
• More than one processing operation can occur at a time.
• Difficult and unfamiliar tasks require controlled processing.
• Simple and familiar tasks can be processed automatically.
 Factors Affecting Attention

Factors which determine whether or not we pay attention to a

stimulus are :
1. Intensity : a bright color will attract us more than a dull one.
2. Size: a large thing is more likely to catch our attention than
something small.
3. Duration of repetition : a quickly running stimulus will not catch
our attention as easily as one, which persists or is repeated.
4. Emotional content: a stimulus, which creates emotional feeling,
attracts our attention more than a neutral one.
 Factors Affecting Attention

5. Suddenness or novelty : sudden stimulus is likely to catch

our attention more easily than one we have been expecting.
6. Contrast: contrasting stimulus will attract attention more
easily than those, which are similar to each other.
7. Movement: a stimulus, which moves, is more likely to attract
attention than something stationary.
 3.3. Perceptual Constancy

• The world as we perceive it is a stable world

• Perceptual constancy: refers to the fact that our

perceptions of the world remain reasonably stable
despite a continuously changing stimulus
environment in which an object is rarely ever seen
twice under precisely the same viewing conditions.
 Perceptual Constancy
• For example, a person walking towards you presents an
increasingly large retinal image, yet you do not conclude that the
person is growing in size.
Some of perceptual constancy are : size, shape, brightness, and
color.
A) Size Constancy: refers to our tendency to perceive objects as
remaining the same size even when their images on the retina are
continually growing or shrinking.
B) Shape Constancy :- the perceived shape of objects tends to
remain the same irrespective of the positions or conditions under
which we view them
C) Brightness: refers to the tendency to perceive brightness as
remaining the same in the changing illumination.
D) Color Constancy: refers to the tendency to perceive colors as
remaining stable despite differences in lighting.
 3.4. Extrasensory Perception

• This refers to perception that occurs without a basis in sensory in put.

• It is the unique power some people have to sense something that the
majority of us are not lucky (or unlucky ?) to do so.
• There are psychologists known by the name ‘para psychologists’ who
study para normal events - things that are out of the normal experience or
knowledge.
• For these groups of psychologists, every one of us has a 6th sense and it is
a question of whether it is developed or not
• The following are some of the examples of paranormal or extrasensory
manifestations:
Precognition
• This refers to the ability to foretell future events.
• Some people are believed to have the ability to tell what is going to
happen after some time.
 Extrasensory Perception
Clairvoyance
• This is the ability to perceive hidden objects that are not clearly
observable or perceivable to anyone.
• For these people you cannot hide something and lie that
you do not have it.
Telepathy:
• It refers to direct transmission of thoughts from one person to the other
without using any of the known senses.
• Such people are also known as mind readers.
Psychokinesis
• This refers to a unique ability to affect the physical world purely
through thoughts.
• People with such an extrasensory power can, for example, bend a spoon
or a key without touching (without applying any physical force).
 Directions in perception

The processing of Perception proceeds along two directions :

• These are top-down processing and
• Bottom-up processing

1. Top- down processing : The top- down processing of perception

is guided by a higher-level of knowledge, experience,
expectations, and motivations.
• Patterns can be recognized easily and rapidly, because we expect
certain shapes to be found in certain locations.
• Example: - When we read a sentence, we perceive sentence
with the missing letters in it. This is because we had past
experiences. Therefore, it is not important to decode the
meaning of each word. If an additional word is inserted, we
may not notice that it is there:
• The figure “I3”, for example, is perceived as the letter B in a
row that consists of the letters A through F. The same figure
can be perceived as the number 13 in a row that contains the
numbers 10 through 14
2. Bottom-up processing : The bottom-up of perception consists
of recognizing and processing information about the individual
components of the stimuli.
• Partly perception requires the recognition of each separate
letters.
Theories Related to Sensation and Perception
• Signal Detection Theory : This theory claims that, the
ability to detect a stimulus depends not only on the type
and intensity of the stimulus but also on psychological
factors.
• For example: physicians who are seeking to identify the
presence of a tumor in an x-ray are influenced by their
expectations, knowledge, and experience with patients.
• The Gestalt laws of organization: In the perceptual
process, the senses work together to provide us with an
integrated view and understanding of the world.
• The Gestalt Laws of organization are principles that
describe how we organize and construct pieces of
information into meaningful wholes.
• According to gestalt Psychologists these organizing
tendencies take several (six) different forms, figure-ground,
closure, proximity, similarity, simplicity and continuity.
• Figure-Ground Perception:-It is the perceptual
relationship between the object of focus (the figure)
and the field (the ground).
• The figure has form or structure and appears to be in
front of the ground.
• The ground is seen as extending behind the figure.
• The relationship can be reversed by focusing on or
attending to the ground rather than the figure
• Similarity: The similarity rule states that, in organizing
stimuli, we group together elements that appear similar.
• Closure: We perceive things by grouping them as
complete figure rather than open and breaks.
• We tend to ignore the breaks in the figure below and
concentrate on the overall form as a triangle.
• Proximity: The proximity rule states that, in organizing
stimuli, we group together objects that are physically
close to one another.
• Simplicity: When we observe a pattern, we perceive it
in the most common straightforward manner. For
example, most of us see the figure below as a square
with lines on two sides, rather than as the block letter
“W” on the top of the letter “M”. We generally tend to
choose and interpret the simple one.
• Continuity: The continuity rule states that, in organizing
stimuli, we tend to favor smooth or continuous paths
when interpreting a series of points or lines
Chapter three

Learning
 Learning

The contents of this unit are presented in two sections:

• In the first section, you will explore the nature of learning and in the

second you will focus on the theories of learning and their

applications.

• Learning is involved in almost every phenomenon psychologists study

and occurs in many different ways.

• Every individual uses learning techniques and processes and directive

unique thoughts and memories to perform day-to-day functions.

 Learning
Learning Outcomes
After you have studied this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the general meaning, types, and factors of
learning
• Identify the characteristics of learning
• Describe some of the theories designed to explain the
characteristics of learning
• Differentiate the viewpoints of different theories of
learning
• Discuss the applications of theories of learning
• State techniques used to motivate and reinforce
behavior.
 3.1. Definition, Characteristics and Principles of Learning

Definitions of learning
• There are many definitions of learning. However, the most widely
accepted definition is the one given below
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience or practice
The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning :
• Learning is a process of relatively permanent change in behavior
• It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and
use of intoxicant
• Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities
of the individual
• Learning depends on practice and experience
 Learning
Characteristics of learning

• If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience,

and then instruction must include a careful and systematic
creation of those experiences that promote learning.
• This process can be quite complex because, among other
things, an individual's background strongly influences the
way that person learns.
 Learning
• Yoakman and Simpson have described the following major
important characteristics of learning
Learning :
• Is continuous modification of behavior throughout life
• Is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life
• Involves the whole person, socially, emotionally &
intellectually
• Is often a change in the organization of experiences
• Is responsive to incentives
• Is an active process
• Is purposeful
• Depends on maturation and motivation
• Learning is multifaceted
 3.1.3. Principles of Learning
Some of the most important principles of learning are as
follows :
Individuals learn best when:
• they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to
learn.
• they have meaningful practice and exercise.
• accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling.
• Things learned first create a strong impression in the
mind that is difficult to erase.
 3.1.3. Principles of Learning

• Things most recently learned are best remembered.

• The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn

more from the real thing than from a substitute.
• Individuals must have some abilities and skills that
may help them to learn.
• Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the
freedom enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual
and moral advancement.
 3.2. Factors Influencing Learning
Some of the factors that affect learning of individuals are the following :
Motivation : The learner’s motivation matters the effectiveness of learning. The
stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to
learn. When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes
enthusiastic.

Intelligence: the more the individual is intelligent, the better she/he learns.

Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given

task. Example, The child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.

Physical condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health status

to learn. Example - Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the

body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.

 Factors Influencing Learning cont’d
• Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air, light,
comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions like
noise and learning aids determine learning effectiveness.
• Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual’s psychological states like
worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas
self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective
learning.
• Background experiences : All related facts and understandings from a
previously learned course should be brought to new learning.
• Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too short
nor too long. Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in
learning.
3.3. Theories of Learning and their
Applications
 Theories of Learning and their Applications

• Here in this section, you will learn about theories of learning

with their possible implications and applications.
• The theories discussed in the section are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, observational and
cognitive learning theories
 3.3.1. Behavioral Theory of Learning

• Believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus response

associations.
• Emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all
organisms, and provide explanations which focus on
consequences.
• There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They are
known as classical and operant Conditioning
 3.3.1.1. Classical conditioning theory of learning
• Focuses on the learning of involuntary, emotional or
physiological responses such as fear, increased
heartbeat, salivation or sweating - sometimes called
respondents because they are automatic responses to
stimuli.
• Human and animals can be trained to act involuntarily
to a stimulus that previously had no effect - or a very
different effect - on them.
• Classical conditioning is characterized by the capacity
of a previously neutral stimulus to elicit a reflex.
 Classical conditioning theory of learning cont’d
• Involves what are known as conditioned reflexes. An
example of this is a ‘knee-jerk’ reflex.
• This reflex isn’t controlled by the brain, but by the spinal
cord, and it is straight forward response to the stimulus.
• Another example of a reflex is the production of saliva in
a response to food when you are hungry, and it was this
response which Pavlov first investigated when he
discovered classical conditioning.
• Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it
is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response
 Basics of Classical Condition

To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify

stimuli and responses.
In addition, you must be well familiarized with the following
basic terms of classical condition :
• Neutral stimulus : A stimulus that, before conditioning, does
not naturally bring about the response of interest.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally
brings about a particular response without having been
learned ( eg. food )
• The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that has an
inborn power to elicit a response.
• Food in the mouth is such a stimulus.
• The physiology of the body is such that when salivary
glands are stimulated by food, saliva will flow
Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is
natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell
of food).
• The unconditioned reflex is an inborn response pattern.
 Basics of Classical Condition

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) : A once neutral stimulus

that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to
bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
• The conditioned stimulus is created by the learning
process.
• It acquires a power that is sometimes (not always)
similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after
conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
(e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
• A conditioned reflex is a learned response pattern

• Hence, the theory of classical conditioning

represents a process in which a neutral stimulus,
by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the
characteristics of natural stimulus.
 Basics of Classical Condition
• It is also sometimes called substitution learning
because it involves substituting a neutral stimulus in
place of natural stimulus.
• The theory states that the responses originally made
to unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with
the conditioned stimulus
• What is learned is a conditioned stimulus -
conditioned response bond of some kind. To make
this explanation clear, let us consider Pavlov’s
experiment.
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment

Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment

• In the above experiment the food was an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) - stimulus that automatically produces an
emotional or physiological response - because no prior
training or “conditioning “ was needed to establish the
natural connection between food and salvation.
• The salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR) -
naturally occurring emotional or physiological response again
because it occurred automatically, no conditioning required.
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment
• Using these three elements- the food, the salivation, and the bell
sound - Pavlov demonstrated that a dog could be conditioned to
salivate after hearing the bell sound. He did this by contiguous
pairing of the sound with food.
• At the beginning of the experiment, he sounded the bell and then
quickly fed the dog. After Pavlov repeated this several times, the
dog began to salivate after hearing the sound but before
receiving the food.
• Now the sound had become a conditioned stimulus (CS) -
stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response
after conditioning - that could bring forth salivation by itself.
• The response of salivating after the tone was conditioned is
conditioned response ( CR ) - learned response to a previously
neutral stimulus.
 Principles of Classical Condition

The basic principles of classical conditioning include the role

of stimulus generalization, stimulus discriminations,
extinction and spontaneous recovery.
A. Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
• Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar
to an original conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned reflex
• Stimulus generalization: is a process in which,
after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce
a particular response, stimuli that are similar to
the original stimulus produce the same responses.
For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a
dinner bell (CS) might also salivate to a door
bell, a telephone bell.
 Principles of Classical Condition

• Stimulus discrimination is the process that occurs if two

stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one
evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the
ability to differentiate between stimuli. Example, the dog
salivates only in response to the dinner bell instead of the
doorbell or the telephone bell.
 Principles of Classical Condition
B. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Extinction
• If a CS is repeatedly presented without presenting the
UCS (meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop
occurring.
• This process is called extinction.
• A dog that has learned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS)
will eventually stop doing so unless presentations of the
dinner bell are periodically followed by presentations
of the UCS (meat).
• But extinction only inhibits the CR, it does not
eliminate it.
 Principles of Classical Condition
Spontaneous recovery : is the reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further
conditioning.
• For example, suppose you produce extinction of the CR of
salivation by no longer presenting the dog with meat after
ringing the dinner bell.
• If you rang the dinner bell a few days later, the dog would
again respond by salivating.
• In spontaneous recovery, however, the CR is weaker and
extinguishes faster than it did originally
 Classical Conditioning in the Real World

 In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs.

 There are, however, numerous real-world applications for

classical conditioning.

 For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning

techniques to help people train their pets.

• These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or
anxiety problems.
• Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class
by creating a positive classroom environment to help students
overcome anxiety or fear.
• Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in
front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student
learn new associations.
• Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the
child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.
Dealing with anxieties through conditioning :
• Through conditioning fear, anxieties, prejudices,
attitudes, perceptual meaning develops.
• Examples of anxiety are fear of signals on the road,
alarm bell blown during wartime, child receiving
painful injection from a doctor.
• Anxiety is a generalized fear response.
• To break the habits of fear, a teacher should use
desensitization techniques.
• Initially teacher should provide very weak form of
conditioned stimulus and gradually, the strength of
stimulus should be increased
 Principles of Classical Condition
• Suppose a one-year old child is playing with a toy near an electrical out-let.
He sticks part of the toy into the outlet. He gets shocked, becomes frightened,
and begins to cry. For several days after that experience, he shows fear when
his mother gives him the toy and he refuses to play with it. What are the
UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Show in diagram there association into three stages of
processes?
a) UCS___________________________________
b) UCR___________________________________
c) CS____________________________________
d) CR___________________________________
Could you please explain something you learned through classical conditioning?
3.3.1.2. Operant/Instrumental
Conditioning
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning

• Operant conditioning : is learning in which a voluntary

response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its
favorable or unfavorable consequences.
• When we say that a response has been strengthened or
weakened, we mean that it has been made more or less likely to
recur regularly.
• An emphasis on environmental consequences is at the heart
of Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental
Conditioning
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning
• In operant conditioning, the organism's response operates or
produces effects on the environment.
• These effects, in turn, influence, whether the response will occur
again.
• Unlike classical conditioning , in which the original behaviors are
the natural, biological responses to the presence of a stimulus such
as food, water, or pain,
• Operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an
organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.
The term operant emphasizes this point :
• The organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable
result
• Operant conditioning : is at work when we learn that toiling
industriously can bring about a raise in salary or that studying hard
results in good grades
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning
• To understand behavior we should focus on the
external causes of an action and the action’s
consequences.
• To explain behavior, he said, we should look outside
the individual, not inside
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning
• In Skinner’s analysis, a response (“operant”) can lead to three
types of consequences: such as a) A neutral consequence
b) a reinforcement or c) punishment.
a) A neutral Consequence that does not alter the response.
b) A reinforcement that strengthens the response or makes it
more likely to recur.
A reinforce is any event that increases the probability that the
behavior that precedes it will be repeated.
There are two basic types of reinforces or reinforcing stimuli:
primary and secondary reinforces
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning
Primary reinforcers :
• Food, water, Light, stroking of the skin, and a
comfortable air temperature are naturally reinforcing
because they satisfy biological needs.
• They are, therefore, known as primary reinforcers.
• Primary reinforcers have the ability to reinforce without
prior learning.
Secondary Reinforces
• Behaviors can be controlled by secondary reinforces
• They reinforce behavior because of their prior association
with primary reinforcing stimuli.
• Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards, and gold
stars are common secondary reinforcers
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning

Positive and negative reinforcement

• Both primary and secondary reinforces can be positive or
negative.
Positive reinforcement
• A positive reinforcer has value for the organism. Food when you
are hungry, water when you are thirsty, and money when you’re
strapped for cash all provide examples of positive reinforcers.
• Occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is
followed by a stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency
of that behavior
• Is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus makes behavior
more likely to occur again
• e.g. praise, adding marks, giving chocolates
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning

Negative reinforcement
• Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of
an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing the original behavior's
frequency
• A negative reinforce has no value for the organism.

• It does injury or is noxious in some way. A hot room, an offensive

person, and a dangerous situation all provide examples of
negative reinforces.
• The organism tends to either escape from or avoid such reinforcers.
• Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of
an aversive stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur?
• The basic principle of negative reinforcement is that
eliminating something aversive can itself be a reinforcer or a
reward.
• This can be an example of what is called escape learning.
• In escape learning animals learn to make a response that
terminates/stops a noxious, painful or unpleasant stimulus .
• Another kind of learning, which is similar, but not the same as
escape learning is avoidance learning
• Avoidance learning refers to learning to avoid a painful,
noxious stimulus prior to exposure
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning

• For example, if someone nags you all the time

you study, but stops nagging (irritating) when
you comply, your studying is likely to increase
- because you will then avoid the nagging.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement
When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most
rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs .
• This procedure is called continuous reinforcement .
• However, once a response has become reliable, it will be
more resistant to extinction if it is rewarded on an
intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement,
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement involves reinforcing only
some responses, not all of them.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
There are four types of intermittent schedules :
Fixed-ratio schedules
• Occurs after a fixed number of responses.
• Employers to increase productivity often use fixed ratio
schedules.
• An interesting feature of a fixed ratio schedule is that
performance sometimes drops off just after reinforcement.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
• Occurs after some average number of responses, but the
number varies from reinforcement to reinforcement.
• Produces extremely high steady rates of responding.
• The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a
fixed ratio schedule is used.
 Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Interval Schedule:

• Occurs only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the
previous reinforce.
Variable Interval Schedule:
• Occurs only after a variable amount of time has passed since the
previous reinforce.
• A basic principle of operant conditioning is that if you want a
response to persist after it has been learned, you should
reinforce it intermittently, not continuously.
• Because the change from continuous reinforcement to none at all
will be so large that the animal or person will soon stop
responding.
• But if you have been giving the reinforcement only every so often,
the change will not be dramatic and the animal/ person will keep
responding for a while.
 C ) Punishment

• Is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less

likely to recur?
• Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that
weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.
Like reinforces, punishers can also be primary or
secondary.
• Pain, extreme heat or cold are inherently punishing and
are therefore known as primary punishers .
 C ) Punishment

• Criticism, demerits, insults, scolding, fines, and bad grades are

common secondary punishers .
• The positive-negative distinction can also be applied to punishment .

• Something unpleasant may occur following some behavior (positive

punishment), or something pleasant may be removed (negative
punishment).
Example :
• Corporal punishment (something unpleasant)

• Salary reduction (something pleasant)

Negative punishment: occurs when a behavior (response) is
followed by the removal of a stimulus. Example: taking away a
child's toy following an undesired behavior, which would result in
a decrease in the undesirable behavior
 The Pros and Cons of Punishment

Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for

effectiveness of punishment.
• Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the
behavior to be punished.
• Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior
being punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore
becomes resistant to extinction.
 The Pros and Cons of Punishment

Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than mild
ones.
• However, there are studies that indicate that even less intense punishments
are effective provided that they are applied immediately and consistently.

However, punishment fails when :

• People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. They
swing in a blind rag or shout things they do not mean applying.
Punishment is so broad that it covers all sorts of irrelevant behaviors.
 The Pros and Cons of Punishment

The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or rage.

• These negative emotional reactions can create more problems than the
punishment solves. For instance, a teenager who has been severely
punished may strike back or run away .
• Being physically punished in childhood is a risk factor for depression, low
self-esteem, violent behavior and many other problems.

The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on

the presence of the punishing person or circumstances.

Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.

• Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish may
instead be reinforcing because it brings attention.
 Shaping

• Shaping : is an operant conditioning procedure in which

successive approximations of a desired response are
reinforced.
• In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in the right
direction.
• Then you gradually require responses that are more and
more similar to the final desired response.
• The responses that you reinforce on the way to the final one
are called successive approximations
 Application Of The Theory Of Operant Conditioning
Conditioning study behavior
For effective teaching, teacher should arrange effective
contingency of reinforcement. Example:
• For Self-learning of a student a teacher should reinforce
student behavior through variety of incentives such as prize,
medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by
giving higher marks.
 Application of the theory of operant conditioning

Conditioning and classroom behavior

• During learning process child acquire unpleasant experiences also.
• This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and the classroom and
learner dislikes the subject and a teacher.
• Discussion , participation, presentations
Managing Problem Behavior
• Two types of behavior is seen in the classroom which are: undesired behavior and
problematic behavior.
Undesirable behavior – eg sleeping
Problematic behavior – disturbing others
• Operant conditioning is a behavior therapy technique that shape students behavior.
• For this teacher should admit positive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc.
for learning.
• One should not admit negative contingencies. Example punishment (student will run
away from the dull and dreary classes – escape stimulation.
 Application of the theory of operant conditioning

Conditioning and Cognitive Processes

• Reinforcement : is given in different form, for the
progress of knowledge in the feedback form
• When response is correct, positive reinforcement is
given
• Each step is built upon the preceding step
• Progress is seen in the process of learning
• Immediate reinforcement is given at each step
 Application of the theory of operant conditioning

Shaping Complex Behavior

• Complex behavior exists in form of a chain of small

behavior.

• Control is required for such kind of behavior.

• This extended form of learning is shaping technique.

3.3.2. Social Learning Theory (Observational
learning) theory
 Social Learning Theory

• According to psychologist Albert Bandura, a major part of

human learning consists of observational learning
• Observational Learning: is learning by watching the
behavior of another person, or model.
• Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social
phenomenon—the perspective taken by Bandura is often
referred to as a social cognitive approach to learning
(Bandura, 1999, 2004).
 Social Learning Theory
Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can
encourage observational learning :
• Direct reinforcement: the observer may reproduce the
behaviors of the model and receive direct reinforcement.
• Vicarious reinforcement: the observer may simply see
others reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase
his or her production of that behavior.
• Self-reinforcement: an individual is reinforced not to get
external reinforcement but students value and enjoy their
growing competence
• Social cognitive theorists believe that in human beings,
observational learning cannot be fully understood without
taking into account the thought processes of the learner.
 Social Learning Theory
• They emphasize the knowledge that results when a
person sees a model- behaving in certain ways and
experiencing the consequences.
 Social Learning Theory
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary for an individual to
successfully model the behavior of someone else :
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has
been observed.
Retention can be increased by using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction
• Is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated.
• the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a
problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the
action.
• For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
• The required skill and ability should be available
 Social Learning Theory
4. Motivation
• learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
• Existence of reinforcement is important
• Remember that since these four conditions vary among
individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior
differently.
 Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use :
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other
people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase
the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
• This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and
consequences of various behaviors.
 Social Learning Theory

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching

new behaviors.
• Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning;
modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior.
• To promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure
that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention,
motor reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate
behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 Social Learning Theory

5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of

other models.
• This technique is especially important to break down
traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of
accomplishing school tasks.
• It is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for
students.
• Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having
students receive confidence-building messages, watch
others be successful, and experience success on their
own.
 Social Learning Theory
7. Teachers should help students set realistic
expectations for their academic accomplishments.
• This is to mean making sure that expectations are not
set too low. I want to realistically challenge my students.
8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method
for improving student behavior
4.1.1. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory

• Both classical and operant conditionings have traditionally

been explained by the principle of contiguity i.e. the close
association of events in time and space.

• Contiguity has been used to explain the association of a

conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus in classical
conditioning and the association of a behavior and its

consequences in operant conditioning.

 Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition
or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which
human beings process and store information.
• Cognitive learning refers to understanding, knowing,
anticipating, or making use of information
• It extends beyond basic conditioning to include memory,
thinking, problem solving and language.
Cognitive learning may take two forms:
• Latent learning ( hidden, covert, dormant, concealed )
• Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning)
 Cognitive Learning Theory

Latent Learning
• ‘Latent’ means hidden and thus latent learning is learning
that occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when
conditions for its appearance are favorable.
• It occur without reinforcement of particular responses
and seems to involve changes in the way information is
processed.
• In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed
three groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior
each day for more than two weeks.
• The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the
maze.
• Group 2 never found food.
• Group 3 found no food for ten days but then received food
on the eleventh.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
• The Group 1 rats quickly learned to head straight the end of the
maze without going blind alleys
• Whereas Group 2 rats did not learn to go to the end.
• But, the group three rats were different. For ten days they appeared
to follow no particular route.
• Then, on the eleventh day they quickly learned to run to the end of
the maze.
• By the next day, they were doing, as well as group one, which had
been rewarded from the beginning.
• Group three rats had demonstrated latent learning, learning that is
not immediately expressed.
• A great deal of human learning also remains latent until
circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
Insight Learning
• It is cognitive process whereby we reorganize our
perception of a problem
• It doesn’t depend on conditioning of particular
behaviors for its occurrence.
• Sometimes, for example, people even wake from
sleep with the solution to a problem that they had
not been able to solve during the day.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

• In insight learning a problem is posed, a period follows

during which no apparent progress is made, and then the
solution comes suddenly.
• What has been learned in insight learning can also be applied
easily to other similar situations.
• Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually
experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience.
CHAPTER FOUR

Memory and Forgetting

 Memory
Brainstorming Question
• What is the meaning of memory?
• What is the function of memory in your studying ?
 Memory
Chapter Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to :
• Define memory and forgetting
• Describe the stages and memory structures proposed by
theory of memory
• Explain the processes that are at work in memory functions
• Identify how learned materials are organized in the long
term memory
• State the factors underlying on the persistence, and loss of
memory
• Explain different theories of forgetting
 Memory and Forgetting
Chapter Overview
• Memory and learning are closely related
• The two terms often describe roughly the same processes.
• The term learning is often used to refer to processes involved in the
initial acquisition or encoding of information,
• Whereas the term memory more often refers to later storage and
retrieval of information.
• Information is learned if it can be retrieved later and retrieval
cannot occur unless information was learned.
• Thus, psychologists often refer to the learning/memory process as a
means of incorporating all features of encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
 Memory and Forgetting

• Intelligent life does not exist without memory.

• Imagine what life could mean to a person who is
unable to recall things that are already seen, tested,
heard before.
• If you don’t have a memory, you cannot remember
whatever information you acquire that makes your
life disorganized, confused and meaningless.
 Memory and Forgetting
Your memory provides your life to have :
• Continuity in place and time
• Adapt to the new situations by using previous skills and
information
• Enriches your emotional life by recoiling your positive and
negative life experiences
 Meaning and Processes of Memory
• To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to separate
the process from the structure.
 Processes of Memory

Brainstorming Question
How do you form the memory of events you sense?
 Processes of Memory

• Memory process is the mental activities we perform to

put information into memory, to keep it there, and to
make use of it later. This involves three basic steps :
• Encoding: Taken from computer science, the term
encoding refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an
item of information is to be placed in memory.
• Key board, mouth
 Processes of Memory
• It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a
form usable to memory.
• In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a
memory code that can be further processed.
• Storage : To be remembered the encoded experience must leave
some record in the nervous system (the memory trace); it must
be squirreled away and held in some more or less enduring
form for later use.
• Keeping information in memory
• Saving on computer ( C, D, desktop )
 Processes of Memory
• This is what memory specialists mean when they speak of
placing information in storage.
• It is the location in memory system in which material is
saved.
• Storage: is the persistence of information in memory.
• Retrieval : In retrieval, material in memory storage is
located, brought into awareness and used.
 Processes of Memory

• Failure to remember can result from problems during any of the

three phases of the memory process. ( encoding , storage, retrieval )
• If, for example, you encode a new item of information only as a
sound pattern, there would be no memory trace of its meaning.
• If both the sound and the meaning were encoded and held for the
length of the retention interval, the item might have been mis filed in
memory.
• If so, the item might be impossible to retrieve even though it is still
stored in memory.
 Processes of Memory
• Memory : is the process by which information is
encoded (phase1), stored (phase 2) and later
retrieved (phase 3).
 Stages / Structure of Memory
• The cognitive perspective has dominated psychology’s view of
memory for the past years
• In recent years it has become integrated with understanding of
the neuro-psychology of memory
• Many cognitive psychologists relate the mind to an information
processor,
• Resembles memory to a digital computer that takes items of
information in; processes them in steps or stages, and then
produces an output.
 Stages / Structure of Memory

• Consider how the computer works; First, it takes in

information (for instance via keystrokes) and translates the
information into an electronic language, then the computer
permanently stores the information on a disc, and finally it
retrieves the information (file) stored on a disc on to a
working memory (which also receives new information from
the keyboard) and the information is put on to the screen as
part of the working memory.
 Stages / Structure of Memory
• Architects make miniature house models to help clients
imagine their future homes; psychologists create memory
models to help us think about how our brain forms and
retrieves memories.
• Information-processing models are analogies that compare
human memory to a computer’s operations. Thus, to remember
any event, we must:
• Get information into our brain, a process called encoding.
• Retain that information, a process called storage.
• Later get the information back out, a process called retrieval.
 Stages / Structure of Memory

To explain our memory-forming process, Richard Atkinson

and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed a model with three
stages:
1. We first record information to be remembered information as a
fleeting sensory memory.
2. from there, we process information into short - term memory,
where we encode it through rehearsal.
3. Finally, information moves into long - term memory for later
retrieval
 Stages / Structure of Memory
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
• It is the entry way to memory
• It is the first information storage area
• Sensory memory acts as a holding bin, retaining information
until we can select items for attention from the stream of stimuli
bombarding our senses.
• It gives us a brief time to decide whether information is
extraneous or important.
• Sensory memory includes a number of separate subsystems, as
many as there are senses.
 Stages / Structure of Memory

• It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses

for a brief time.
• For instance, visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the
visual system for a maximum of one second.
• Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory
system for a slightly longer time, by most estimates up to two
second or so.
 Stages / Structure of Memory

• The information stored in sensory memory is a fairly accurate

representation of the environmental information but
unprocessed.
• Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply
decays from the register.
• However, some of the information that has got attention and
recognition pass on short-term memory for further processing.
 Stages / Structure of Memory

2. Short-term Memory
• Is part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention.
• Unlike sensory memories, short-term memories are not brief
replicas of the environmental message.
• Instead, they consist of the by-products or end results of
perceptual analysis.
• STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading,
speaking, and problem solving.
• There are various terms used to refer to this stage of memory,
including working memory, immediate memory, active memory,
and primary memory
 Brainstorming Question
Why do we call STM as a working memory ?
 Short Term Memory

Why do we call STM as a working memory ?

Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics :
It is active
• Information remains in STM only so long as the person is
consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it.
• People use STM as a "workspace” to process new
information and to call up relevant information from LTM.
 Short Term Memory
Rapid accessibility
• Information in STM is readily available for use.
• In this respect, the difference between STM and LTM is the
difference between pulling a file from the top of a desk versus
searching for it in a file drawer, or between searching for
information in an open computer file versus file stored on the
hard drive.
 Short Term Memory
• Preserves the temporal sequence of information - STM usually
helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a
temporary period of time. It keeps the information fresh until it
goes to further analysis and stored in LTM in meaningful way.
• Limited capacity- Years ago, George Miller (1956) estimated the
capacity of STM to be “the magic number seven plus or minus
2”.
• That is, on the average, people can hold about seven pieces of
information in STM at a time; with a normal range from five to
nine items.
• Everyone agrees, however, that the number of items that short-
term memory can handle at any one time is small.
 Short Term Memory
• According to most models of memory, we overcome this problem,
by grouping small groups of information into larger units or
chunks.
• Chunking: is the grouping or “packing” of information into
higher order units that can be remembered as single units.
• Chunking: expands working memory by making large amounts of
information more manageable.
• The real capacity of short-term memory, therefore, is not a few
bits of information but a few chunks
 Short Term Memory
• A chunk may be a word, a phrase, a sentence, or even a visual
image, and it depends on previous experience.
• STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images,
words, and sentences and so on) received from sensory
memory for up to about 30 seconds by most estimates.
• It is possible to prolong Short Term Memory indefinitely by
rehearsal- the conscious repetition of information.
• Maintenance Rehearsal_ used to stay information in STM for
longer
• Elaborative Rehearsal – Used to pass information from STM
to long LTM
 Long Term Memory

• It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent

storage of meaningful information.
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.
• The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us to
learn, get around in the environment, and build a sense of
identity and personal history.
• LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last for
days, months, years, or even a lifetime
 Long Term Memory

The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems :

Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of information
such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It
is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memories.
• Semantic memory - factual knowledge like the meaning of words,
concepts and our ability to do math. They are internal representations
of the world, independent of any particular context.
• Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from personal
experience.
• They are internal representations of personally experienced events.
 Long Term Memory

B, Non-declarative/implicit memory
• Refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which behavior
is affected by prior experience without that experience being
consciously recollected.
• One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is
procedural memory.
• It is the “how to” knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing
how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.
 Serial Position Effect

• The three-box model of memory is often invoked to explain

interesting phenomenon called the serial position effect.
• If you are shown a list of items and are then asked immediately
to recall them, your retention of any particular item will depend
on its position in the list.
• That is, recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list
(the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency
effect).
• When retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-
shaped curve.
 Serial Position Effect

• A serial position effect : occurs when you are introduced to a

lot of people at a party and find you can recall the names of
the first few people you met at the beginning and the last, but
almost no one in between.
• According to the three-box model, the first few items on a list
are remembered well because short-term memory was
relatively “empty” when they entered, so these items did not
have to compete with others to make it into long term memory.
They were thoroughly processed, so they remain memorable
 Serial position effect

• The last few items are remembered for a different reason: At

the time of recall, they are still sitting in STM
• The items in the middle of the list, however, are not so well
retained because by the time they get into short-term memory,
it is already crowded.
• As a result many of these items drop out of short-term memory
before they can be stored in long-term memory.
 Factors Affecting Memory

• Memory as stated already, is a process which includes learning,

retention and remembering.
• As such all the three processes are important for good memory.
 Factors Affecting Memory

Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans

are as follows:
a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces
left in the brain by past experiences.
b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the
learnt material better than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than
the aged.
d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and
remember complex material.
e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for
better retention.
 Factors Affecting Memory

f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory

than a dull person.
g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and
retain better.
h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning
will lead to better memory.
i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention.
j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials
remain in our memory for longer period than for nonsense
material.
k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning
strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear
memory.
 Forgetting
• Forgetting refer to the apparent loss of information already
encoded and stored in the long-term memory
• The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913).
• Using himself as his only subject, he memorized lists of three
letter non-sense syllables - meaningless sets of two
consonants with a vowel in between, such as FIW and BOZ.
 Forgetting
• The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and
particularly in the first hour.
• After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines
little, even after the passage of many days.
• Ebbinghaus’s research had an important influence on
subsequent research, and his basic conclusions had been
upheld
 Forgetting
• There is almost always a strong initial decline in memory,
followed by a more gradual drop over time.
• Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material is
almost always faster than starting from a scratch, whether
the material is academic information or a motor skill such as

serving a tennis ball.

 Theories of forgetting

• Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for

forgetting: decay, replacement of old memories by new ones,
interference, motivated forgetting, and cue dependent forgetting
The decay theory
• The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with
time if they are not “accessed” now and then.
• This explanation assumes that when new material is learned a
memory trace or engram- an actual physical change in the brain-
occurs.
• In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind,
because of the passage of time.
 Theories of forgetting
• Decay occurs in sensory memory and in short term memory as
well, unless we rehearse the material.
• However, the mere passage of time does not account so well
for forgetting in long-term memory.
• People commonly forget things that happened only yesterday
while remembering events from many years ago.
• Although there is evidence that decay does occur, it does not
seem to be the complete explanation for forgetting.
 Theories of forgetting
Interference
• Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs because similar
items of information interfere with one another in either storage
or retrieval.
• The information may get into memory, but it becomes confused
with other information.
• There are two kinds of interference that influence forgetting:
proactive and retroactive.
• In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes
with recall of newer material.
• If new information interferes with the ability to remember old
information the interference is called Retroactive Interference
 Theories of forgetting
New memory for old/ displacement theory
• This theory holds that new information entering memory can
wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio or
videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.
• This theory is mostly associated with the STM, where the
capacity for information is limited to seven plus or minus two
chunks.
• It cannot be associated with the LTM because of its virtually
unlimited capacity.
 Theories of forgetting
Motivated forgetting
• Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget
because they block from their consciousness those
memories that are too threatening or painful to live
with, and he called this self-protective process
Repression.
• Today many psychologists prefer to use a more
general term, motivated forgetting.
 Theories of forgetting
Cue dependent forgetting
• Often when we need to remember, we rely on retrieval cues, items
of information that can help us find the specific information we’re
looking for.
• In long-term memory, this type of memory failure may be the
most common type of all.
• Cues that were present when you learned a new fact or had an
experience are appropriate to be especially useful later as
retrieval aids.
 Theories of forgetting
• That may explain why remembering is often easier when you
are in the same physical environment as you were when an
event occurred: Cues in the present context match from the
past.
• Cues present during the initial stage of learning help us to
recall the content of the specific learning materials in an easy
manner.
• Your mental or physical state may also act as a retrieval cue,
evoking a state dependent memory.
 Theories of forgetting
• For example if you are intoxicated when something happens,
you may remember it better when you once again have had a
few drinks than when you are sober.

• Likewise, if your emotional arousal is specially high or low

at the time of an event, you may remember that event best

when you are once again in the same emotional state.

 Improving Memory
Some simple mnemonics can be useful :
A better approach is to follow some general guidelines.
• Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember
because we never encoded the information in the first place.
When you do have something to remember, you will do better if
you encode it.
• Encode information in more than one way : The more
elaborate the encoding of information, the more memorable it
will be .Visual, auditory, meaning..etc
• Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more
likely it is to link up with information already in long-term
memory.
 Improving Memory
• Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using
study breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate
way to reduce interference.
• Over learn: Studying information even after you think you
already know it- is one of the best ways to ensure that
you’ll remember it.
• Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently,
rehearsing thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will
have a better idea of how you are doing
 CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
 Motivation

Definition and types of motivation

• Motivation: is the process by which activities are started,
directed and continued so that physical or psychological needs
or wants are met.(initiated, directed and sustained)
• Motivation is force that initiates, directs and sustains a
behavior towards a goal
• The word itself comes from the Latin word Mover, which means
“to move”.
• Motivation is what “moves” people to do the things they do.
For example, when a person is relaxing in front of the television
and begins to feel hungry, the physical need for food might
cause the person to get up, go into the kitchen, and search for
something to eat.
 Motivation
There are different types of motivation. But it is possible to
categorize them into two : intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation : is a type of motivation in which a
person acts because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in
some internal manner.
• Whereas extrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in which
individual acts because the action leads to an outcome that is
separated from the person.
• For example, giving a child money for every ‘A’ on a report
card, offering a bonus to an employee for increased
performance.
 Approaches to motivation ( theories of motivation )

The sources of motivation are different according to the

different approaches to motivation by different writers.
Some of the approaches/theories are; instinct, drive-reduction,
arousal, incentive, cognitive, and humanistic.
Instinct approaches to motivation
• Biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that
exists in both people and animals is called instincts.
 Instinct approaches to motivation

• The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily

biologically based.
• We engage in certain behaviors because they aid in survival.
• Migrating before winter ensures the survival of the flock, so the
behavior has become instinctive.
• Just as animals are governed by their instincts to do things such
as migrating, nest building, mating and protecting their
territory, early researchers proposed that human beings may
also be governed by similar instincts.
• According to these instinct approach , in
humans, the instinct to reproduce is
responsible for sexual behavior, and the
instinct for territorial protection may be
related to aggressive behavior.
 Instinct approaches to motivation

• The early theorists and psychologists listed thousands of

instincts in humans including curiosity, flight (running
away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering
possessions).
• Although there are plenty of descriptions, such as “submissive
people possess the instinct of submission”, there was no
attempt to explain why these instincts exist in humans.
• But these approaches accomplished one important thing by
forcing psychologists to realize that some human behavior is
controlled by hereditary factors
 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation

• When a physiological need is not satisfied, a negative state of

tension is created; when the need is satisfied, the drive to satisfy
that need is reduced and the organism returns to homeostasis.
In this way, a drive can be thought of as an instinctual need
that has the power to motivate behavior.
• This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.
• A need : is a requirement of some material (such as food or
water) that is essential for the survival of the organism.
• Need : is a state of deficiency in our physiological system
• When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological
tension as well as physical arousal to fulfill the need and
reduce the tension. This tension is called drive.
• Drive-reduction theory : proposes just this connection
between internal psychological states and outward behavior.
• In this theory, there are two kinds of drives; primary and
secondary.
 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation

• Primary drives : are those that involve survival needs of the

body such as hunger and thirst, whereas
• Acquired (secondary) drives : are those that are learned
through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money,
social approval, praise.
• This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the
tendency of the body to maintain a steady-state.
• One could think of homeostasis as the body’s version of a
thermostat- thermostats keep the temperature of a house at a
constant level and homeostasis does the same thing for the
body’s functions.
 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
When there is a primary drive the body is in a state of imbalance.
• This stimulates behavior that brings the body back into
balance or homeostasis.
• For example, if mister X’s body needs food, he feels hunger
and the state of tension (arousal associated with that need).
• He will seek to restore his homeostasis by eating something
which is the behavior stimulated to reduce the hunger drive.
(see the figure below)
 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
 Drive reduction theory : is the idea that a physiological need
(food, water) creates an aroused, motivated state (a drive, such
as hunger or thirst) that pushes the organism to reduce the
need by, say, eating or drinking .
 With few exceptions, when a physiological need increases, so
does a psychological drive
 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
• Although the drive-reduction theory works well to explain
the actions people take to reduce tension created by
needs, it does not explain all human motivation.
• Why do people eat when they are not hungry ?
• People do not always seek to reduce their inner arousal,
either sometimes they seek to increase.
 Arousal approaches: beyond drive reduction

Arousal approaches : beyond drive reduction

• According to the arousal theory of motivation, each person has a

unique arousal level that is right for them.

• When our arousal levels fall outside of these personalized

optimal levels, we seek some sort of activity to get them back

within our desired ranges.

• Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the
goal is to maintain or increase excitement.
• According to arousal approaches to motivation, each
person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and
activity.
• As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests
that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high,
we try to reduce them.
• But, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective, it also
suggests that if levels of stimulation and activity are too
low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.
• Arousal can be mental (cognitive), emotional (affective),
or physical—sometimes referred to as the three parts of
arousal theory or the three types of arousal.
 Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull

• Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to attain external

rewards, known as incentives.
• In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli: whether
grades, money, affection, food, or sex—account for a person’s
motivation .
• Internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work in a
cycle with the external incentives of incentive theory to “push”
and “pull” behavior, respectively.
• Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our underlying
hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction theory), we are drawn to
food that appears very appetizing (the pull of incentive theory).
• Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and incentives
may work together in motivating behavior.
 Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull

• When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly

driven.
• The food -deprived person who smells baking bread feels a
strong hunger drive.
• In the presence of that drive, the baking bread becomes a
compelling incentive.
• For each motive, we can therefore ask, “How is it pushed by our
inborn physiological needs and pulled by incentives in the
environment?”
 Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation
• Suggest that motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs,
expectations, and goals.
• For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a
test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in
terms of a good grade.
• Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation: causes us to participate in an activity for our
enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will
bring us.
• In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for
money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward.
 Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation

• For example, when a teacher provides tutorial support for

students in her extra time because she loves teaching, intrinsic
motivation is prompting her; if she provides tutorial support to
make a lot of money, and extrinsic motivation underlies her
efforts.
• Similarly, if you study a lot because you love the subject matter,
you are being guided by intrinsic motivation.

• On the other hand, if all you care about is the grade you get in the

course, that studying is due to extrinsic motivation.

 Humanistic approaches to motivation

• The other approach to the study of motivation is the humanistic

approach which is based on the work of Abraham Maslow.
• Maslow was one of the early humanistic psychologists who
rejected the dominant theories of psychoanalysis and
behaviorism in favor of a more positive view of human
behavior.
• Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives.
 Humanistic approaches to motivation
• He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy
must be at least partially satisfied before people can be
motivated by the ones at higher levels.
Maslow’s five Hierarchies of motivational needs from the
bottom to the top are as follows :
• Physiological needs- these are biological requirements
for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter,
clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
• Safety needs - protection from threat , security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.
 Humanistic approaches to motivation
• Love and belongingness needs- after physiological and
safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human
needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love.
Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
• Esteem needs - the need to be respected as a useful,
honorable individual; which Maslow classified into two
categories:(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, and independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation
or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
• Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-
fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A
desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”.
 Conflict of motives and frustration
Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of the
decision, people usually face difficulty to choose among the motive
s.
• These are just a few of the motives that may shape a trivial
decision.
• When the decision is more important, the number and strength of
motivational pushes and pulls are often greater, creating far more
internal conflict and indecision.
There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.
• Approach-approach conflicts - exist when we must choose only
one of two desirable activities. Example, going to a movie or a
concert.
• Avoidance-avoidance conflicts - arise when we must select one of
two undesirable alternatives. Someone forced either to sell the
family home or to declare bankruptcy.
 Conflict of motives and frustration

Approach-avoidance conflicts

Happen when a particular event or activity has both attractive

and unattractive features, for example, if a student scored
good grade to join university but assigned to a university
located at a remote geographical setting.
 Conflict of motives and frustration

Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

• Exist when two or more alternatives each have both positive
and negative features.
• Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high
salary with a well-known company but requires long working
hours and relocation to a miserable climate.
• The other boasts advancement opportunities, fringe benefits,
and a better climate, but it doesn’t pay as much and involves
an unpredictable work schedule
 Emotions

Definition of emotion
 Definition of emotion

• The Latin word meaning “to move” is the source of both words
used to refer to - motive and emotion.
• It is psychological state characterized by physiological arousal,
change in facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective
feelings.
• Emotion can be defined as the “feeling” aspect of
consciousness, characterized by certain physical arousal,
certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world,
and an inner awareness of feelings.
 Definition of Emotion
Thus, from this short definition, we can understand that there are
three elements of emotion:
o the physiology
o behavior and
o subjective experience
o The Physiology of Emotion - when a person experiences an
emotion, there is physical arousal created by the sympathetic
nervous system.
• The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the
pupils of the eye dilate, and the mouth may become dry.
• Think about the last time you were angry and then about the last
time you were frightened.
 Definition of Emotion
o The behavior of emotion- tells us how people behave in the grip of
an emotion. There are facial expressions, body movements, and
actions that indicate to others how a person feels.
• Frowns , smiles, and sad expressions combine with hand gestures,
the turning of one’s body, and spoken words to produce an
understanding of emotion.
• People fight, run, kiss, and yell, along with countless other actions
stemming from the emotions they feel.
• Facial expressions can vary across different cultures, although some
aspects of facial expression seem to be universal.
 Definition of Emotion

o Subjective experience

• The third component of emotion is interpreting the subjective

feeling by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness,
sadness, shame, and interest, surprise and so on.
• Another way of labeling this component is to call it the “cognitive
component,” because the labeling process is a matter of
retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving
the context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution- a
label.
CHAPTER SIX

PERSONALITY
 PERSONALITY

Chapter Learning Outcomes

After completion of this chapter, you will be able to :
• Define personality
• Discuss the natures of psychoanalytic theory
• Identify the structures of personality
• Explain psychological defense mechanisms
• Explain the essence of the trait theory of personality
• Discuss the five factor model of personality
• Explain the essence of humanistic theory of personality
 Meaning of Personality

• The word personality is derived from the word

‘persona’, which has Greek and Latin roots and refers
to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors.
• Psychologists : generally view personality as the
unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and
actions that characterize a person.
 Meaning of Personality

• Personality : should not be confused with character, which

refers to value judgments made about a person’s morals or
ethical behavior; nor should it be confused with temperament,
the enduring characteristics with which each person is born
with , such as irritability or adaptability.
• However, both character and temperament are vital
personalities
 Theories of Personality

• Though there are different theories of personality, we will see at

least the three theories: psychoanalytic, trait and humanistic.
• The specific questions psychologists ask and the methods they
use to investigate personality often depend on the types of
personality theories they take.
• Some of the theories of personality are: psychodynamic, trait,
and humanistic
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality

• According to the psychoanalytic theory of Freud, Personality is

formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs,
drives, and characteristics.
• He argued that people are in constant conflict between their
biological urges (drives) and the need to tame them.
• The psychoanalytic theory includes a theory of personality
structure.
• In Freud's view, personality has three parts: the id, the ego,
and the superego which serves a different function and develops
at different times.
• The ways these three parts of personality develop and interact
with one another become the heart of his theory.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
Id: If It Feels Good, Do It
• The first and most primitive part of the personality in the infant
is the id.
• The Id is a Latin word that means “it “.
• Is a completely unconscious moral part of the personality that
exists at birth, containing all of the basic biological drives:
hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, for example.
• When these drives are active, the person will feel an increase
in not only physical tension but also in psychological tension
that Freud called libido, the instinctual energy that may come
into conflict with the demands of societal standards for
behavior .
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
• When libidinal energy is high, it is unpleasant for the
person, so the goal is to reduce libido by fulfilling the
drive : Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and
satisfy the sex when the need for pleasure is present.
• Freud called this need for satisfaction the pleasure
principle,
• which can be defined as the desire for immediate
satisfaction of needs with no regard for the
consequences.
• The pleasure principle can be summed up simply as “if
it feels good, do it.”
• The id operates based on pleasure principle
• Id is a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that,
according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual
and aggressive drives.
• The id operates on the pleasure principle,

demanding immediate gratification.

• Although the id is present at birth, it never departs
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
Ego: The Executive Director
• According to Freud, to deal with reality, the second part of
personality develops called the ego.
• The ego, from the Latin word for “I”, is mostly conscious and
is far more rational, logical and cunning than the id.
• The ego works on the reality principle, which is the need to
satisfy the demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways
that will not lead to negative consequences.
• This means that sometimes the ego decides to deny the id its
drives because the consequence would be painful or too
unpleasant.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality

• Ego is the largely conscious, “executive” part of

personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the
demands of the id, superego, and reality.
• The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s
desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather
than pain.
• The ego takes form around the age of two or three

• Like the id, it too will become a part of the adult personality
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
Superego: The Moral Watchdog
• Freud called the third and final part of the personality, the
moral center of personality, the superego.
• The superego (also Latin, meaning “over the self”) develops
as a preschool-aged child learns the rules, customs, and
expectations of society.
• There are two parts of superego: the ego ideal and the
conscience.
• The ego-ideal is a kind of measuring device.
• It is the sum of all the ideal or correct and acceptable
behavior that the child has learned from parents and others in
the society.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
• All behavior is held up to this standard and judged by the conscience.
• The conscience: is the part of the personality that makes people feel pride
when they do the right thing and feel guilt, or moral anxiety when they do
the wrong thing.
• Superego is the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and
provides standards for judgment (the conscience)
• For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual battle for
dominance among the id, the ego, and the superego.
• This constant conflict between them is resolved by psychological defense
mechanisms.
• When anxiety cannot be dealt with by realistic methods, the ego calls upon
various defense mechanisms to release the tension
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality

• Defense mechanisms : are unconscious tactics that either

prevent threatening material from surfacing or disguise it when it
does.
Some of the psychological defense mechanisms are discussed
below :
• Repression: is a defense mechanism that involves banishing
threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the
unconscious mind. Example: an Ethiopian husband who is
defeated by his wife will not remember/ talk it out again.
• Denial : is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening
situation. Example; Mr. Ben is an alcoholic who denies/ doesn’t
accept being an alcoholic.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
• Regression : involves reverting to immature behaviors that have
relieved anxiety in the past. Example: a girl/a boy who has just
entered school may go back to sucking her/his thumb or wetting
the bed.
• Rationalization : Giving socially acceptable reasons for one's
inappropriate behavior. Example: make bad grades but states
the reason as having to work through college.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
• Displacement: expressing feelings toward a person who is less
threatening than the person who is the true target of those
feelings. Example: Hating your boss but taking it out on
family members .
• Projection: the defense mechanism that involves attributing
one's undesirable feelings to other people. Example: a
paranoid person uses projection to justify isolation and anger.
 The psychoanalytic theory of personality
Reaction formation: a defense mechanism that involves a tendency to act in a
manner opposite of one's true feelings.
Example: In order to hide anger feelings, a person displays exaggerated
friendliness, Concealing ones anger, canceling ones joy
Sublimation: defense mechanism that involves expressing sexual or
aggressive behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.
Example: an aggressive person who plays football.
• Our use of defense mechanisms is not considered as inappropriate or
unhealthy unless we rely on them to an extreme.
• Remember that all of us use defense mechanisms to make conflict and
stress easier to manage.
• It may not be possible to get through life without such defenses.
• But, excessive use may create more stress than it alleviates.
The trait theory of personality
 The trait theory of personality
• Trait theorists seek to measure the relative strength of the
many personality characteristics that they believe are present
in everyone.
• Psychologists who take the trait approach see personality as a
combination of stable internal characteristics that people
display consistently over time and across situations.
• The trait approach to personality makes three main
assumptions:
• Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore
predictable, over time. So a gentle person tends to stay that
way day after day, year after year.
 The trait theory of personality
• Personality traits are relatively stable across situations
They can explain why people act in predictable ways in many
different situations.
A person who is competitive at work will probably also be
competitive on the tennis court or at a party.
• People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they
possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result
is an endless variety of unique personalities
 The trait theory of personality

• Though the history of the trait theory of personality has come through
different stages, our attention here will be paid on the five-factor model or
the Big Five theory.
• The five factor trait dimensions can be remembered by using the acronym
OCEAN, in which each of the letters is the first letter of one of the five
dimensions of personality.
• Openness can best be described as a person’s willingness to try new things
and be open to new experiences.
• People who try to maintain the statuesque and who don’t like to change
things would score low on openness.
• People who consistently seek out different and varied experiences would
score high on openness to experience.
• For example, they enjoy trying new menu items at a restaurant or they like
searching for new and exciting restaurants.
• In contrast, people who are not open to experiences will stick with a familiar
item, one they know they will enjoy
 The trait theory of personality
Conscientiousness : refers to a person’s organization and
motivation, with people who score high in the dimension being
those who are careful about being on time and careful with
belongings as well.
• Someone scoring low on this dimension, for example, might
always be late to important social events or borrow
belongings and fail to return them or return in poor
coordination.
 The trait theory of personality
Extraversion : is a term first used by Carl Jung, who believed that all people
could be divided into two personality types: extraverts and introverts.
Extraverts are outgoing and sociable, whereas introverts are more solitary
and dislike being the center of attention.
Agreeableness : refers to the basic emotional style of a person, who may be
easygoing, friendly and pleasant (at the high end of the scale) or grumpy,
crabby and hard to get along with (at the low end).
• The agreeableness scale distinguishes soft-hearted people from ruthless
ones.
• People score high on agreeableness tend to be trusting, generous,
yielding, acceptant, and good-natured.
• Those who score low are generally suspicious, stingy, unfriendly,
irritable, and critical of other people.
• Neuroticism :Refers to emotional instability or stability. People who are
excessive worriers, overanxious and moody would score high on this
dimension, whereas those who are more even-tempered and calm could score
low.
 Humanistic theory of personality

• In the middle of the twentieth century the pessimism of

Freudian psychoanalysis with its emphasis on conflict and
animalistic needs, together with the emphasis of behaviorism
on external control of behavior, gave rise to the third force in

psychology: the humanistic perspective.

 Humanistic theory of personality

• Humanistic approaches : to personality emphasize people’s

inherent goodness and their tendency to move toward higher
levels of functioning instead of seeing people as controlled by
the unconscious, unseen forces (psychodynamic approaches),
and a set of stable traits (trait approaches).
• It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and
improve, along with people’s unique creative impulses, that
humanistic theorists argue make up the core of personality.
 Humanistic theory of personality
• As Maslow’s theory was discussed in chapter five, in this chapter the
discussion of the humanistic view of personality will focus on the
theory of Carl Rogers.
Carl Rogers and Self-concept
• Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always striving
to fulfill their innate capacities and capabilities and to become
everything that their genetic potential will allow them to become.
• This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency.
• An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of an
image of oneself or the self-concept.
• The self-concept is based on what people are told by others
• Self concept is how the sense of self is reflected in the words and
actions of important people in one’s life, such as parents, siblings,
coworkers, friends, and teachers.
 Humanistic theory of personality
Realself (self concept) and Ideal Self : Two important
components of the self-concept are the real self (one’s actual
perception of characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the
basis of the striving for self-actualization) and the ideal self
(the perception of what one should be or would like to be).
 The ideal self primarily comes from those important,
significant others in one’s life, most often the parents.
 Rogers believed that when the real self and the ideal self are
very close or similar to each other, people feel competent and
capable,
 but when there is a mismatch between the real and ideal
selves, anxiety and neurotic behavior can be the result.
 Humanistic theory of personality
• The two halves of the self are more likely to match if
they aren’t that far apart at the start.
• When one has a realistic view of the real self, and the
ideal self is attainable, there usually isn’t a problem of
a mismatch.
• It is when a person’s view of self is distorted or the
ideal self is impossible to attain that problems arise.
• Once again, it is primarily how the important people
(who can be either good or bad influences) in a
person’s life react to the person that determines the
degree of agreement between real and ideal selves.
 Humanistic theory of personality

Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard

• Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and
respect that comes from the significant others (parents, admired
adults, friends, and teachers) in people’s experience.
• Positive is vital to people’s ability to cope with stress and to
strive to achieve self-actualization.
• Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard, or love,
affection and respect is necessary for people to be able to
explore fully all that they can achieve and become.
• Unfortunately, some parents, spouses, and friends give
conditional positive regard, which is love, affection, respect
and warmth that depend, or seem to depend, on doing what
those people want.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT

TECHNIQUES
 Overview

• Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a

wide range of mental health conditions-disorders that affect your
mood, thinking and behavior.
• Examples of mental illness include depression, anxiety
disorders , schizophrenia, eating disorders and addictive
behaviors.
 Overview
• A mental health concern becomes a mental illness when
ongoing signs and symptoms cause frequent stress and affect
your ability to function.
• A mental illness can make you miserable and can cause
problems in your daily life, such as at school or work or in
relationships.
• In most cases, symptoms can be managed with a combination of
medications and talk therapy (psychotherapy).
 Overview
• Therefore, the contents of this unit are presented in four parts.
In the first section, you will explore the Nature of
Psychological Disorders, and in the second you will focus on
the causes of psychological disorders, thirdly about types of
Psychological Disorders and finally about treatment

techniques.
 Nature of Psychological Disorders

 People who exhibit abnormal patterns of feelings, thinking

and behavior most likely suffer from some kind of
psychological disorders.
 We generally have three main criteria: abnormality, mal
adaptiveness , and personal distress.
 Nature of Psychological Disorders

Abnormality
• Abnormal behavior deviates from the behavior of the ‘typical’ person
(the norm).
• A society’s norm can be qualitative and quantitative.
• When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable ways and the
behaviors he/she exhibits violates the norm, standards, rules and
regulations of the society, this person is most likely to have a
psychological problem.
• Only abnormal behavior cannot be sufficient for the diagnosis of
psychological problem.
• Hence, we need to consider the context in which a person’s behavior
happens.
 Nature of Psychological Disorders

Mal adaptiveness

Maladaptive behavior in one way or another creates a social,

personal and occupational problem on those who exhibit the
behaviors.
These behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day activities of
individuals that can increase the problem more.
 Nature of Psychological Disorders

Personal Distress
• Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and other
unpleasant emotions determine whether we have a
psychological disorder.
• These negative emotional states arise either by the problem
itself or by events that happen up on us.
• But, the criterion of personal distress, just like other criteria, is
not sufficient for the presence of psychological disorder.
• This is because some people like feeling distressed by their own
behavior.
• Hence, behavior that is abnormal, maladaptive, or personally
distressing might indicate that a person has a psychological
disorder.
Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)
The Biological Perspective
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)

The Biological Perspective

• Current researchers believe that abnormalities stem from the
working of chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters,
may contribute to many psychological disorders.
• For example, over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine,
perhaps caused by an overabundance of certain dopamine
receptors in the brain, has been linked to the bizarre
symptoms of schizophrenia
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)

Psychological Perspectives
In this part, we will examine three psychological perspectives:
the psychoanalytic perspective, the learning, and the
cognitive perspectives.
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)

Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Abnormal behavior , in Freud’s view, is caused by the ego’s inability to
manage the conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the
superego.
• Especially important is the individuals’ failure to manage the
conflicting of id’s sexual impulses during childhood, and society’s
sexual morality to resolve the earlier childhood emotional conflicts
that determine how to behave and think later.
Learning perspective
• Most mental and emotional disorders, in contrast to the psychoanalytic
perspective, arise from inadequate or inappropriate learning.
• People acquire abnormal behaviors through the various kinds of
learning
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)

Cognitive perspective
• Our quality of internal dialogue whether we accept or not
ourselves build ourselves up or tear ourselves down has
profound effect on our mental health.
• The main theme of this perspective is that self-defeating
thoughts lead to the development of negative emotions and
self-destructive behaviors.
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)
• People's ways of thinking about events in their life determines
their emotional and behavioral patterns.
• Most of the time, our thinking pattern may affect our emotional
and behavioral wellbeing in either positive or negative way.
• Hence, if there is a disturbance in our thinking, it may manifest in
our display of emotions and behaviors.
• Our environmental and cultural experiences in our life play a
major role in the formation of our thinking style.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors.
• Psychopathology : is the study of psychological disorders, including their
symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment.
• The term psychopathology can also refer to the manifestation of a
psychological disorder.
• In this connection, there are many types of Psychological disorders, but here
in this section we will try to see only three types: mood disorder, anxiety

disorder and personality disorder.

 Types of Psychological Disorders
1. Mood Disorders
• Mood disorders are characterized by a serious change in mood
that causes disruption to life activities.
• If you have a mood disorder, your general emotional state
or mood is distorted or inconsistent with your circumstances
and interferes with your ability to function.
• You may be extremely sad, empty or irritable (depressed)
• You may have periods of depression alternating with being
excessively happy (mania).
• The disorders in this category include those where the primary
symptom is a disturbance in mood.
• The disorders include Major Depression, Dysthymic Disorder,
Bipolar Disorder, and Cyclothymia.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

1. Mood Disorders
Major Depression
Also known as depression or clinical depression is characterized by depressed
mood, diminished interest in activities previously enjoyed, weight disturbance,
sleep disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty concentrating, and often includes
feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide.
Dysthymia
• Dysthymia differs from major depression in terms of both severity and
duration.
• Dysthymia represents a chronic mild depressive condition that has been
present for many years.
• It is often considered as a less severe , but more persistent form of depression.
• Also, dysthymia, as opposed to major depression is steadier rather than
periods of normal feelings and extreme lows.
 Types of Psychological Disorders
Two or more of the following symptoms must also be
present for a diagnosis of dysthymia :
• Poor appetite or overeating
• Insomnia (sleeplessness) or hyper somnia
• Low energy or fatigue
• Low self-esteem
• Poor concentration or difficulty making decisions
• Feelings of hopelessness
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Bipolar Disorder

(previously known as Manic-Depression) is characterized by periods of extreme

highs (called mania) and extreme lows as in Major Depression.

• Bipolar Disorder: A disorder that is characterized by episodes of depression

and mania(euphoria).
• Mania is a condition characterized by a high energy level, increased
activity, elation, and expressiveness.
Bipolar Disorder is sub typed either I (extreme or hypermanic episodes) or II
(moderate or hypomanic episodes).

Cyclothymia
• Like Dysthymia and Major Depression, Cyclothymia is considered a lesser form of
Bipolar Disorder.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

2. Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations.
• It can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and pay attention.
• Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of nervousness or anxiousness,
• It involve excessive fear or anxiety.
• Anxiety disorders are the most common of mental disorders
• It affect nearly 30 percent of adults at some point in their lives.
• Anxiety disorders are treatable and a number of effective treatments are
available.
• Treatment helps most people lead normal productive lives.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

2. Anxiety Disorders
• Anxiety disorders can cause people avoid situations that trigger
or worsen their symptoms.
• Job performance, school work and personal relationships can
be affected.
For a person to be diagnosed with anxiety disorder, the fear or
anxiety must :
• Be out of proportion to the situation or age inappropriate
• Hinder your ability to function normally
• The disorders in this category include panic disorder,
agoraphobia , specific phobias, social phobia, obsessive-
compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and
generalized anxiety disorder.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Anxiety Disorders
a) Panic Disorder
• Is characterized by a series of panic attacks.
• A panic attack is an inappropriate intense feeling of fear or
discomfort including many of the following symptoms: heart
palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness.
• These symptoms are so severe that the person may actually believe
he or she is having a heart attack.
• In fact, many, if not most of the diagnoses of panic disorder are
made by a physician in a hospital emergency room.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

b) Agoraphobia
• Means fear of the marketplace.

• The person fears, and often avoids, situations where escape or

help might not be available, such as shopping centers, grocery
stores, or other public place.
• Agoraphobia is often a part of panic disorder if the panic attacks
are severe enough to result in an avoidance of these types of
places.
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Anxiety Disorders
C) Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia
• Represent an intense fear and often an avoidance of a specific
situation, person, place, or thing.
• To be diagnosed with a phobia, the person must have suffered
significant negative consequences because of this fear and it must
be disruptive to their everyday life.
• The following criteria must be met for a diagnosis of a phobia to
be met:
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia

• Marked and persistent fear that is excessive or unreasonable,
cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or
situation.
• Exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably provokes an
immediate anxiety response, which may take the form of a
panic attack.
• The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.
• The phobic situation(s) is avoided or endured with intense
anxiety or distress.
• The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared
situation(s) interferes significantly with the person’s normal
routine or they experience distress about having the phobia.
 Types of Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Is characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem
uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which act to reduce
the obsession).
• Most people think of compulsive hand washers or people with an
intense fear of dirt or of being infected.
• These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the person's
everyday life, with sometimes hours being spent each day
repeating things, which were completed successfully already such
as checking, counting, cleaning, or bathing.
Anxiety Disorders
E) Post traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs only after
a person is exposed to a traumatic event where their life or
someone else's life is threatened.
The most common examples are war, natural disasters, major
accidents, and severe child abuse.
Once exposed to an incident such as this, the disorder
develops into an intense fear of related situations, avoidance
of these situations, reoccurring nightmares, flashbacks, and
heightened anxiety to the point that it significantly disrupts
their everyday life.
 Types of Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
F) Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Is diagnosed when a person has extreme anxiety in nearly
every part of their life.
• It is not associated with just open places (as in agoraphobia),
specific situations (as in specific phobia), or a traumatic event
(as in PTSD).
• The anxiety must be significant enough to disrupt the person's
everyday life for a diagnosis to be made.
 Types of Psychological Disorders
3. Personality Disorders
• A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you
have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning
and behaving.
• A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and
relating to situations and people.
• Are characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling,
and behaving which is significantly different from the person's
culture and results in negative consequences.
• This pattern must be longstanding and inflexible for a diagnosis
to be made.
• There are around nine types of personality disorders, all of
which result in significant distress and/or negative consequences
within the individual:
Paranoid
• Paranoid (includes a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness)
• Is characterized by the pervasive tendency to be
inappropriately suspicious of other people’s motives and
behaviors.
• Because paranoid people do not trust anyone, they have
trouble maintaining relationships with friends and family
members
• Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a
restriction of emotions).
• Schizoid personality disorder is defined in terms of a pervasive
pattern of unresponsiveness to other people, coupled with a
diminished range of emotional experience and expression.
• These people are loners; they prefer social isolation to
interactions with friends or family.
• Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and
eccentric thoughts and behaviors).
• People with this disorder may report bizarre fantasies and
unusual perceptual experiences.
• Their speech may be slightly difficult to follow because they use
words in an odd way or because they express themselves in a
vague or disjointed manner.
• In spite of their odd or unusual behaviors, people with
schizotypal personality disorder are not psychotic or out of touch
with reality
 Antisocial personality Disorder
• Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of others,
including violation of these rights and the failure to feel
empathy).
• a persistent pattern of irresponsible and antisocial
• Begins during childhood or adolescence and continues into
the adult years
• A pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the
rights of others.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
• Is characterized by a pervasive pattern of excessive
emotionality and attention seeking behavior.
• People with this disorder thrive on being the center of
attention and they want the attention on them at all times.
• They are self-centered, vain, and demanding, and they
constantly seek approval from others
 Types of Psychological Disorders
• Narcissistic : grandiosity, need for admiration and lack of
empathy
• Avoidant: social inhibition, feeling of in adequacy and hyper
sensitivity to negative emotion.
• Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive cleanliness,
perfection, and control).
Borderline Line Personality Disorder
• Borderline (pattern of instability in personal relationships,
including frequent bout of clinginess and affection and anger and
resentment, often cycling between these two extremes rapidly).
• It is a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal
relationships, self-image and affect, and marked impulsivity.
• It’s essential feature is a pervasive pattern of instability in mood
and interpersonal relationships.
• People with this disorder find it very difficult to be alone
• They form intense, unstable relationships with other people and
are often seen by others as being manipulative
 Types of Psychological Disorders

Treatment Techniques
Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms. They
can include:
• medication,
• talk-therapy,
• a combination of both, and can last only one session or
take many years to complete.
• Many different types of treatment are available, but most
agree that the core components of psychotherapy remain
the same.
 Treatment Techniques
Psychotherapy consists of the following:
A. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient
and a trained psychotherapist.
B. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or
not.
C. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment.
D. Working together as a team to achieve these goals.
• With these commonalities in mind, this chapter will summarize
the different types of psychotherapy, including treatment
approaches and modalities and will describe the different
professionals who perform psychotherapy.
 Treatment Approaches

When describing 'talk' therapy or psychotherapy, there are

several factors that are common among most types.
• First and foremost is empathy.
• It is a requirement for a successful practitioner to be able to
understand ones client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
• Second, being non-judgmental is vital if the relationship and
treatment are going to work.
• Everybody makes mistakes, everybody does stuff they aren't
proud of.
 Treatment Approaches

• If your therapist judges you, then you don't feel safe talking about similar
issues again.
Aside from these commonalties, therapists approach clients from slightly
different angles, although the ultimate goal remains the same
 to help the client reduce negative symptoms
 gain insight into why these symptoms occurred and work through those
issues,
 and reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the future.
• The three main branches include Cognitive, behavioral and
psychodynamic
 Treatment Approaches

Cognitive branch
• Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch will look at
dysfunctions and difficulties as arising from irrational or faulty
thinking.
• In other words, we perceive the world in a certain way (which may or
may not be accurate) and this result in acting and feeling a certain
way.
Behavioral branch
• Those who follow behavioral models look at problems as arising from
our behaviors which we have learned to perform over years of
reinforcement.
Psychodynamic branch
• The dynamic or psychodynamic camp stem from the teaching of
Sigmund Freud and look more at issues beginning in early childhood
which then motivate us as adults at an unconscious level.
 Treatment Approaches
• Cognitive approaches: appear to work better with most types
of depression, and behavioral treatments tend to work better
with phobias.
• Other than these two, no differences in terms of outcome have
been found to exist.
• Most mental health professionals now a days are more eclectic
in that they study how to treat people using different
approaches.
• These professionals are sometimes referred to as
integrationists.
 Treatment Modalities

Individual therapy
• Therapy is most often thought of as a one- to -one
relationship between a client or patient and a therapist.
• This is probably the most common example, but therapy can
also take different forms.
Group Therapy
• Often time’s group therapy is utilized, where individuals
suffering from similar illnesses or having similar issues meet
together with one or two therapists.
• Group sizes differ, ranging from three or four to 15 or 20,
but the goals remain the same.
• Group is powerful because there is a need in all of us to
belong, feel understood, and know that there is hope.
 Treatment Modalities

• All of these things make group as powerful as it is.

• Imagine feeling alone, scared, misunderstood, unsupported, and unsure of
the future;
• Group is important to: communicate ones own feeling and be understood, to
get support and encouragement, and to be accepted as an important part of
the group.
• Group therapy is second most utilized treatment after individual therapy
• Therapy can also take place in smaller groups consisting of a couple or a
family.
• In this type of treatment, the issues to be worked on are centered on the
relationship.
 Treatment Modalities

• Sometimes therapy can include more than one treatment

modality
• A good example of this is the individual who suffers from
depression, social anxiety, and low self-esteem.
• For this person, individual therapy may be used to reduce
depressive symptoms, work some on self-esteem and
therefore reduce fears about social situations.
 Treatment Modalities

• Once successfully completed, this person may be

transferred to a group therapy setting where he or she
can practice social skills, feel a part of a supportive
group, therefore improving self-esteem and further
reducing depression.
• Sometimes more than one is used, sometimes a
combination of many of them, but together the goal
remains to improve the life of the client.