Chapter 1

BASIC Lecture: 1-6

STRUCTUR Book: Carl Hamacher 5e

E OF Course Outcome: Explain the

interconnection between functional units of
COMPUTER a computer system and various factors that
S affects the performance of a
computer[Level 2: Understanding]
 Computer Organization and Architecture

Imagine you have a big box of colorful Lego

blocks. You want to build a house with these
blocks. Building a Lego house is like
computer organization and architecture. First,
INTRODUCTION
you need to organize the blocks and decide
TO BASIC
STRUCTURE OF which ones to use. Then, you follow a plan to
COMPUTERS stack the blocks in a specific order to create
(T1.1) different parts of the house, like walls, roof,
and windows. Computer organization is
about how the blocks are organized and
connected, while computer architecture
is about the overall design and structure of
the house you're building.
AN EXPERT’S PERSPECTIVE

• In the realm of computer systems, computer organization involves designing the

physical components and their interconnections to create an efficient and functional
system. It delves into aspects such as the microarchitecture of the CPU, cache
hierarchy, memory subsystem, and input/output mechanisms. Computer organization
ensures that the hardware components work together seamlessly to execute
instructions and process data
• Computer architecture, on the other hand, encompasses the higher-level design
principles, instruction sets, and overall system organization. It addresses factors like
the choice of ISA, memory hierarchy design, and the interplay between hardware and
software. Computer architecture involves making decisions to optimize performance,
scalability, and power consumption, while considering the software requirements and
the intended application domain.
In summary, computer organization focuses on the physical
components and their interconnections, while computer architecture
deals with the higher-level design principles, overall system
organization, and the interaction between hardware and software
Constant quest of building automatic computing machines have driven
the development of computers

• Initial efforts: mechanical devices like pulleys, levers and gears

• During World War II: mechanical relays to carry out computations

• Vacuum tubes developed: first electronic computer called ENIAC.

• Semiconductor transistors developed and journey of miniaturization

began

SSI -> MSI -> LSI -> VLSI -> ULSI -> …. Billions of transistors per chip

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
WAR AND COMPUTING

• First Era: Mechanical Computers During World War II, mechanical

computers played a critical role in code-breaking efforts. The most famous
example is the British Colossus computer, which decrypted German Enigma
machine messages, providing invaluable intelligence for the Allied forces.

• Second Era: Vacuum Tube Computers The invention of vacuum tube

computers during the post-WWII era was accelerated by the need for faster
and more reliable computation for military applications. These machines
were instrumental in various military simulations and calculations.
WAR AND
COMPUTING

• Third Era: Transistor Computers The

advent of transistor computers, during the
Cold War era, was influenced by the demand
for more compact, efficient, and reliable
computing systems for defense purposes.
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, leading to
faster and more portable computers.
• Fourth Era: Integrated Circuit Computers
The development of integrated circuits (ICs)
during the 1960s, fueled by the space race
and Cold War, revolutionized computing. ICs
enabled smaller, cheaper, and more powerful
computers, which found applications in
military communications and aerospace
technology.
WAR AND COMPUTING

1. Fifth Era: Microprocessor Computers The emergence of microprocessors in the

1970s was significantly impacted by the Vietnam War and Cold War. These powerful
chips allowed the creation of sophisticated military equipment, communication systems,
and advanced weapon technologies.

2. Sixth Era: Personal Computers The rise of personal computers in the 1980s was
influenced by military research and development efforts. The military's need for small,
portable computing devices led to the miniaturization and mass production of chips and
components.
WAR AND COMPUTING

1. Seventh Era: Internet and Networking The development of the

internet and networking technologies in the late 20th century was
accelerated by the military's requirement for robust communication
and data exchange during conflicts and crises.

2. Eighth Era: Mobile and Cloud Computing Mobile and cloud

computing technologies owe their roots to military applications that
necessitated remote access to critical information and computing
resources.
WORLD WAR PROJECTS WHICH MADE
DIFFERENCE

• First Era: Mechanical Computers Project: Colossus (1943) Description:

Colossus was the world's first programmable digital computer developed by
British code-breakers during World War II. It was used to decrypt German
Enigma-encrypted messages, playing a vital role in the Allied victory.
• Second Era: Vacuum Tube Computers Project: ENIAC (1945) Description:
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was one of the
earliest general-purpose electronic computers. It used vacuum tubes and
paved the way for the development of more sophisticated digital
computers.
WORLD WAR PROJECTS WHICH MADE
DIFFERENCE

• Third Era: Transistor Computers Project: IBM 7090 (1959)

Description: The IBM 7090 was a significant early transistorized
computer. It featured faster processing speeds and became widely
used in scientific and engineering applications.

• Fourth Era: Integrated Circuit Computers Project: Apollo

Guidance Computer (1966) Description: The Apollo Guidance
Computer was a groundbreaking computer that used integrated
circuits. It played a crucial role in the Apollo missions, guiding
astronauts to the moon and back.
WORLD WAR PROJECTS WHICH MADE
DIFFERENCE

• Fifth Era: Microprocessor Computers Project: Intel 4004 (1971)

Description: The Intel 4004 microprocessor was the world's first
commercially available microprocessor. It marked the beginning of
the microprocessor revolution, leading to the development of
personal computers.

• Sixth Era: Personal Computers Project: IBM Personal Computer

(IBM PC) (1981) Description: The IBM PC, with its open architecture
and compatibility, became the industry standard for personal
computers, propelling the personal computing revolution.
WORLD WAR PROJECTS WHICH MADE
DIFFERENCE

• Seventh Era: Internet and Networking Project: ARPANET (1969)

Description: ARPANET was the first network to implement the TCP/IP protocol
suite, laying the groundwork for the modern internet. It was a research
project funded by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA).
• Eighth Era: Mobile and Cloud Computing Project: Apple iPhone (2007)
Description: The Apple iPhone revolutionized mobile computing, making
smartphones accessible to the masses and driving the mobile computing era.
Cloud computing services like Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Google Cloud
Platform (GCP) expanded computing capabilities and accessibility, enabling
remote access to resources.
 • Alan Turing: "We can only see a short distance ahead,
but we can see plenty there that needs to be done." -
Alan Turing, the British mathematician and computer
scientist, played a pivotal role in breaking the German
Enigma code during World War II. His work on early
computers and artificial intelligence laid the foundation
for modern computing.
• Grace Hopper: "It's easier to ask forgiveness than it is to
SOME get permission." - Grace Hopper, a pioneering computer
scientist and United States Navy rear admiral, worked on
SIGNIFICANT the Harvard Mark I computer during World War II. She
later developed the first compiler for a programming

PEOPLE language and contributed significantly to the

development of COBOL.
• John W. Mauchly: "I think the most important factor
moving us forward was a belief in what we were doing.
We were pioneers." - John W. Mauchly, an American
physicist and computer engineer, co-designed the ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), one of
the earliest electronic general-purpose computers, during
World War II.
 AGE OF • AN IBM QUANTUM COMPUTER WILL SOON
PASS THE 1,000-QUBIT MARK
QUANTUM
PA S C A L I N E ( 1 6 4 2 )

• The Pascaline, also known as the

arithmetic machine or Pascaline, is a
mechanical calculator invented by
Blaise Pascal in 1642

• Pascal designed the machine to help

his father, a tax collector, complete
tax computations more efficiently

• The Pascaline could only do addition

and subtraction, with numbers being
entered by manipulating its dials.
 • The Babbage Engine was a
mechanical calculator designed by
Charles Babbage in the 1820s.
• It was intended to reduce the
calculation of polynomial functions
to mechanical addition using the
method of finite differences
BABBAGE
• The engine was programmed with
ENGINE a function and cranked by hand to
deliver the result. Babbage's
largest project,
• The first complete Babbage
Engine was completed in London
in 2002, 153 years after it was
designed
• ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was the
first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer
built during World War II by the United States

• ENIAC was the first large-scale computer to run at electronic speed

without being slowed by any mechanical parts

ENIAC (ELECTRICAL NUMERICAL

I N T E G R AT O R A N D C A L C U L AT O R )
 • UNIVAC I was the first commercially
produced electronic digital computer in
the United States

• It was developed by J. Presper Eckert and

John Mauchly, the inventors of ENIAC, and
U N I VA C I was designed for use by the U.S. Census
Bureau

• It weighed 16,000 pounds, used 5,000

vacuum tubes, and could perform about
1,000 calculations per second
 • The Harvard Mark 1, also known as the
IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator (ASCC), was an early
electromechanical computer designed by
Howard Aiken and built by IBM during
H A R VA R D World War II.

MARK I • It weighed 35 tons and required 500 miles

of wiring.

• Used mechanical relays (switches) to

represent data.
 • IBM System/360 is a family of mainframe
computer systems that was announced by
IBM on April 7, 1964, and delivered
between 1965 and 1978

• It was the first family of computers

designed to cover both commercial and
IBM scientific applications and a complete range
SYSTEM/36 of applications from small to large.

0 • IBM OS/360, introduced in 1964, was one of

the first operating systems to require direct-
access storage devices.

• The 360 family was the most successful IBM

system of all time, generating over $100
billion in revenue through the mid-1980s
 • The Cray-1 was a supercomputer
designed, manufactured, and
marketed by Cray Research
• It was installed at the National Center
for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in
Boulder, Colorado, and was hand-
wired with circuits arranged in a
three-quarters circle.
C R A Y- 1 • It could perform 240 million
calculations per second and was used
for large-scale scientific applications,
such as simulating complex physical
phenomena
• The complete Cray-1 weighed 5.5
tons and was capable of 80 million
floating-point operations per second
 1. 1980s - The Fifth Generation:
• 1981: IBM introduces the IBM Personal Computer (PC), setting the stage
for the rise of personal computing.
• 1985: Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures, such as
the MIPS and SPARC, gain popularity due to their performance
advantages.

2. 1990s - The Era of Mass Commercialization:

• 1991: The World Wide Web becomes publicly available, revolutionizing
the way information is accessed and shared.
• 1993: Intel releases the Pentium processor, marking a significant
milestone in the x86 architecture.
TOWARDS 3. 2000s - Multicore and Mobile Computing:

MODERN • 2005: Intel introduces the Intel Core microarchitecture, focusing on

energy efficiency and performance.

ERA • 2008: The ARM Cortex-A8 processor is released, marking a breakthrough

in mobile computing power.

4. 2010s - Advancements in Parallel Processing and Accelerators:

• 2010: NVIDIA unveils the first graphics processing unit (GPU) based on
the Fermi architecture, targeting parallel computing workloads.
• 2011: IBM's Watson supercomputer defeats human champions in the
quiz show Jeopardy!, showcasing the power of artificial intelligence and
cognitive computing.

5. 2020s - Emerging Technologies and Future Trends:

• Ongoing advancements in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and
neuromorphic computing are shaping the future of computer
architecture.
C O M P U TAT I O N G E N E R AT I O N S
 SOME • Impact of human conflict (word wars) on
computing
TOPICS
• Space race and computing
FOR YOU • Evolution of technology with computing
TO and vice-versa

EXPLORE
 • Moore's Law is an observation
that the number of transistors in
an integrated circuit (IC) doubles
about every two years.
• Gordon Moore's 1965 forecast
that the number of components
on an integrated circuit would
double every year until it
MOORE’S LAW reached an astonishing 65,000
by 1975 is the greatest
technological prediction of the
last half-century.
• Although the pace has slowed,
the number of transistors per
square inch has since doubled
approximately every 18 months.
This is used as the current
definition of Moore's law.
RESOURCES FOR YOU TO EXPLORE

• History of Computers [BBC]

• Future Computers Will Be Radically Different (Analog Computing) [

Veritasium]

• The Most Powerful Computers You've Never Heard Of [Veritasium]

• Why The First Computers Were Made Out Of Light Bulbs

• Quantum Computers Explained – Limits of Human Technology

• Quantum Computing Expert Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty |

WIRED