Welcome…

…to Electrostatics
 Outline
1. Coulomb’s Law
2. The Electric Field
- Examples
3. Gauss Law
- Examples
4. Conductors in Electric Field
 Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law quantifies the magnitude of the electrostatic
force.

Coulomb’s law gives the force (in Newtons) between charges q1

and q2, where r12 is the distance in meters between the charges,
and k=9x109 N·m2/C2.

q1q 2
F k 2
12 r12
 Coulomb’s Law

Force is a vector quantity. The equation on the previous slide

gives the magnitude of the force.

If the charges are opposite in sign, the force is attractive;

if the charges are the same in sign, the force is repulsive.

Also, the constant k is equal to 1/40,

where 0=8.85x10-12 C2/N·m2.
1 q1q2
F12 
4 0 r 2
12
 Coulomb’s Law

• If q1 and q2 are located at

points having position vectors
r1 and r2 then the Force F12 is
given by;

1 q1q2
F12  a R12
4 0 R 2
12

R12 r2  r1
The equation is valid for point charges. If the charged objects
are spherical and the charge is uniformly distributed, r12 is the
distance between the centers of the spheres.

r12

+ -

If more than one charge is involved, the net force is the vector
sum of all forces (superposition). For objects with complex
shapes, you must add up all the forces acting on each separate
charge (turns into calculus!).

+ -
+ -
+ -
Solving Problems Involving Coulomb’s
Law and Vectors

Example: Calculate the net electrostatic force on charge Q3

due to the charges Q1 and Q2.
y
Q3=+65C
30 cm

60
c m

=30º
x
Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
52 cm
Step 0: Think!

This is a Coulomb’s Law problem (all we have to work with, so

far).

We only want the forces on Q3.

Forces are additive, so we can calculate F32 and F31 and add the
two.

If we do our vector addition using components, we must resolve

our forces into their x- and y-components.
Step 1: Diagram
y
Draw a representative F32
sketch. Q3=+65C

Draw and label relevant F31

30 cm
60
quantities. c m

=30º
Draw axes, showing x
origin and directions. Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
52 cm

Draw and label forces (only those on Q3).

Draw components of forces which are not along axes.

Step 2: Starting Equation
y
F32
Q3=+65C

F31

30 cm
60
c m

=30º
x
Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
52 cm
q1q 2
F k 2
12 r12
“Do I have to put in the absolute value signs?”
Step 3: Replace Generic Quantities by
Specifics y
F32
 Q3Q 2 Q3=+65C
F k 2 ,
32 r32 F31

r32=30 cm
r3
repulsive 1 =6
0c
m
=30º
Q 3Q 2 x
F k Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
32, y r2
32
52 cm

F 0 (from diagram)
32, x

F32,y = 330 N and F32,x = 0 N.

Step 3 (continued)
 Q3Q1 y
F k 2 , F32
31 r31 Q3=+65C
attractive F31

r32=30 cm
r3
1 =6
0c
Q3Q1 m
F k 2 cos 
31, x r31 =30º
x
Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
(+ sign comes from
52 cm
diagram)

Q3Q1
F  k 2 sin  (- sign comes from diagram)
31, y r31

You would get F31,x = +120 N and F31,y = -70 N.

Step 3: Complete the Math
y
F32
Q3=+65C F3
The net force is the
vector sum of all the F31

30 cm
60
forces on Q3. c m

=30º
x
Q2=+50C Q1=-86C
52 cm

F3x = F31,x + F32,x = 120 N + 0 N = 120 N

F3y = F31,y + F32,y = -70 N + 330 N = 260 N

You know how to calculate the magnitude F3 and the angle
between F3 and the x-axis.
 Many Point Charges
• If we have N point charges Q1, Q2… QN, located at r1,
r2… rN the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by
each of the charges is given by

Q N
Qk (r  rk )
F
4 0

k 1 r  rk
3
 Coulomb’s Law:
The Big Picture

Coulomb's Law quantifies the interaction between

charged particles.

r12
1 q1q 2
F = , + -
12 4πε 0 r12
2

Q1 Q2

Coulomb’s Law was discovered through decades of

experiment.

By itself, it is just “useful." Is it part of something

bigger?
 The Electric Field

Coulomb's Law (demonstrated in

1785) shows that charged particles
exert forces on each other over
great distances.

How does a charged particle

"know" another one is “there?”
 The Electric Field

Faraday, beginning in the 1830's, was the leader in

developing the idea of the electric field. Here's the idea:
F12
 A charged particle emanates a
+
"field" into all space. F13

 Another charged particle senses the

field, and “knows” that the first one is + F31
there. -
F21 unlike
charges
like attract
charges
repel
 The Electric Field

We define the electric field

by the force it exerts on a
test charge q0:

 F0
E=
q0

By convention the direction of the

electric field is the direction of the
force exerted on a POSITIVE test
charge. The absence of absolute
value signs around q0 means you
must include the sign of q0 in your
work.
 The Electric Field

If the test charge is "too big" it perturbs the electric

field, so the “correct” definition is


 F0
E = lim You won’t be required to
use this version of the
q0  0 q equation.
0

Any time you know the electric field, you can use this
equation to calculate the force on a charged particle in
that electric field.

F = qE
 
  F0  N
The units of electric field are  E  =   =
   q0  C
Newtons/Coulomb.

Later you will learn that the units of electric field can
also be expressed as volts/meter:
N V
 E = =
C m

The electric field exists independent of whether there

is a charged particle around to “feel” it.
Remember: the electric field direction is +
the direction a positive charge would feel
a force.
A positive charge would be repelled by another
positive charge.
Therefore the direction of the electric field is away from
positive (and towards negative).
 The Electric Field
Due to a Point Charge

Coulomb's law says

q1q 2
F =k 2 ,
12 r12

... which tells us the electric field due to a point charge

q is
 q q
E q =k 2 , away from + …or E=k 2
r just… r

This is your third starting equation.

We definer̂ as a unit vector from the source point to
the field point:
source point
r̂ +

field point

The equation for the electric field of a point charge then

becomes:
 q
E=k 2 rˆ
r
 Motion of a Charged Particle
in a Uniform Electric Field

A charged particle in an electric field experiences a

force, and if it is free to move, an acceleration.
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
If the only force is due to the
electric field, then -
E
  F
 F ma qE. + + + + + + + + + + + + +

If E is constant, then a is constant, and you can use the

equations of kinematics.
Example: an electron moving with velocity v0 in the
positive x direction enters a region of uniform electric
field that makes a right angle with the electron’s initial
velocity. Express the position and velocity of the
electron as a function
y of time.
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
x
-
v0 E

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
 Path of the electron in an electric field

• F = eE = ma
• Since there is a force the electron must accelerate
in the y direction and the acceleration is given by
a = 2y/t2
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
x
-
v0 E

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
 Path of the electron in an electric field

• If we combine these to equations

• F = m2y/t2 and at right angles to then field
• x = vt so the equation for the path of the
electron is:

eE = m2y/t2 = 2myv2/x2 or:

 Path of the electron in an electric field

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

x
-
E
v0

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
 Many Point Charges
• If we have N point charges Q1, Q2… QN, located
at r1, r2… rN the vector sum of the Electric Field
E by each of the charges is given by

1 N
Qk (r  rk )
E
4 0

k 1 r  rk
3
 The Electric Field
Due to a Collection of Point Charges

The electric field due to a small "chunk" q of charge is

 1 q  unit vector from
E = 2
r q to wherever
4πε 0 r you want to
calculate E

The electric field due to collection of "chunks" of charge

is
 1 q i 
E= i Ei = 4πε i r 2 r i
0 i

As qdq0, the sum becomes an integral.

 Charge Distributions
Volume charge density:

Total Charge in a Volume

Surface and Line Charge Densities

 Charge Distributions

• Continious charge distributions are given by;

• Do not confuse ρ with radial distance

 Line Charge
If charge is distributed along
a straight line segment
parallel to the z-axis, the
amount of charge dq on a
segment of length dz is ρ dz.
The Charge element is
given by;

The total charge is given by;

 Line Charge

The electric field at point P

due to the charge dq is

 1 dq  1 dx
dE = 2
r' = 2
r'
4πε 0 r' 4πε 0 r'

The field point is denoted by (x,y,z) I’m assuming positively charged

while the source point is denoted by objects in these “distribution of
(x’,y’,z’) charges” slides.
 Line Charge

Definitions
 Line Charge

• Using given definitions we have;

• For a finite line charge;

 Line Charge

• For an infinite line charge α1 and α2 are equal to

π/2 and - π/2 respectively, the z component is
canceled and the equation becomes
 Surface Charge

If charge is distributed over a two-dimensional surface,

the amount of charge dq on an infinitesimal piece of the
surface is ρs dS, where ρs is the surface density of
charge (amount of charge per unit area).
y

charge dQ = ρs dS
ρs

area = dS
 Surface Charge
y
dE
P

r’
ar
x

The electric field at P due to the charge dq is

 Surface Charge

dE
P

r’
ar
x

The net electric field at P due to the entire surface of

charge is
1  S dS
E 
4 0 s r ' 2
aR
 Surface Charge
• Definitions

• And the E field becomes;

 Surface Charge

• After evaluating the previous integration;

• Or a more general formula is

an is a unit
vector normal
to the sheet
• Note that the Electric Field is independent of the
distance between the sheet and the point of
observation P
 Volume Charge
The net electric field at P due to a three-dimensional
distribution of charge is…
z E
P

r’
r'
x

 1 r' (x, y, z) dV .
4πε 0 V
E=
r'2
 Volume Charge
• For a sphere with radius a
centered at the origin

• The E field due to elementary

volume charge is given by;
 Volume Charge

• Due to the symmetry of the

charge distribution, the
contributions to Ex or Ey add
up to zero
 Volume Charge

• Definitions
 Volume Charge

• E

And the resulting expression for E field is;

Summarizing:

 1 r' λ dx .
4πε 0  r'2
Charge distributed along a line: E=

 1 r'  dS.
4πε 0 
Charge distributed over a surface: E= 2
S
r'

 1 r'  dV .
4πε 0 V r'2
Charge distributed inside a volume: E=

If the charge distribution is uniform, then , , and  can be taken

outside the integrals.
 The Electric Field
Due to a Continuous Charge
Distribution
(worked examples)
Example: A rod of length L has a uniform charge per
unit length  and a total charge Q. Calculate the
electric field at a point P along the axis of the rod at a
distance d from one end.
y

P x

d L

Let’s put the origin at P. The linear charge density and

Q are related by
Q
= and Q = L
L

Let’s assume Q is positive.

 y
x dx dQ =  dx
dE P x

d L

The electric field points away from the rod. By

symmetry, the electric field on the axis of the rod has
no y-component. dE from the charge on an infinitesimal
length dx of rod is
dq  dx
dE = k 2 k 2
x x

Note: dE is in the –x direction. dE is the magnitude of

dE. I’ve used the fact that Q>0 (so dq=0) to eliminate
the absolute value signs in the starting equation.
 y
x dx dQ =  dx
dE P x

d L

 d+L d+L  dx d+L dx

d L
 1 ˆ
E =  dE x = -k  ˆ ˆ
i = -k  2 i = -k    i
2
d d x d x  x d

  1 1ˆ   d d L ˆ L ˆ kQ ˆ
E = -k     i = -k   i= -k i= - i
 dL d   d d  L   d d  L  d d  L 
Example: A ring of radius a has a uniform charge per
unit length and a total positive charge Q. Calculate the
electric field at a point P along the axis of the ring at a
distance x0 from its center.
dQ
By symmetry, the y-
a r and z-components of E
 P x
are zero, and all points
x0  on the ring are a
dE distance r from point P.
 dQ
dQ No absolute
dE=k 2 value signs

a r r because Q is
positive.

 P x dQ
x0  dE x =k 2 cos 
r
dE

2 2 x0
r= x a0 cos   For a given x0, r is a
r constant for points on the
ring.
 dQ  x 0 x0 x0 kx 0Q
E x  dE x   k 2  k 3  dQ k 3 Q 
ring ring 
r  r r ring
r x  a 
2 2 3/ 2
0

kxQ
E x,ring 
Or, in general, on the ring axis .
 a
x 2

2 3/ 2
Example: A disc of radius R has a uniform charge per
unit area . Calculate the electric field at a point P
along the central axis of the disc at a distance x0 from
its center.
dQ The disc is made of
concentric rings. The
r
area of a ring at a
P x radius r is 2rdr, and
x
R 0
the charge on each
ring is (2rdr).

We can use the equation on the previous slide for the

electric field due to a ring, replace a by r, and integrate
from r=0 to r=R.
kx 0 2rdr
dE ring  .
x 2
0 r 
2 3/ 2 Caution! I’ve
switched the
“meaning” of r!
 dQ

r
P x
R x0

kx 0 2rdr R 2r dr
E x  dE x   kx 0  
disc disc x 2
0 r 
2 3/ 2 0
x 2
0 r 
2 3/ 2

R
 x  r 
2 2  1/ 2   
x
 2k  0  x 
E x kx 0  
0 0
  1/ 2   x 0 x 2  R 2 1/ 2 
 0  0 
Example: Calculate the electric field at a distance x0
from an infinite plane sheet with a uniform charge
density .
Treat the infinite sheet as disc of infinite radius.

1
Let R and usek  to get
4 0


E sheet  .
2 0

Interesting...does not depend on distance from the

sheet.
 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines help us visualize the electric field and
predict how charged particles would respond the field.

- +

Example: electric field lines for isolated +2e and -e

charges.
Here’s how electric field lines are related to the field:
 The electric field vector E is tangent to the field
lines.
 The number of lines per unit area through a
surface perpendicular to the lines is proportional to
the electric field strength in that region
 The field lines begin on positive charges and end
on negative charges.
 The number of lines leaving a positive charge or
approaching a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
 No two field lines can cross.
The charge on the right is twice the magnitude of the
charge on the left (and opposite in sign), so there are
twice as many field lines, and they point towards the
charge rather than away from it.
Combinations of charges. Note that, while the lines are less
dense where the field is weaker, the field is not necessarily
zero where there are no lines. In fact, there is only one point
within the figures below where the field is zero – can you
find it?
 Gauss’ Law

Electric Flux

We have used electric field lines to visualize electric

fields and indicate their strength.

We are now going to count the

number of electric field lines
passing through a surface, and E
use this count to determine the
electric field.
Electric Flux

The electric flux passing through a surface is the

number of electric field lines that pass through it.

Because electric field lines are A

E
drawn arbitrarily, we quantify
electric flux like this: E=EA,
except that…

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines

cut the surface. E

Electric Flux

We define A to be a vector
having a magnitude equal to the A
area of the surface, in a direction 
normal to the surface. E

The “amount of surface”
perpendicular to the electric field
is A cos .

Because A is perpendicular to the surface, the amount

of A parallel to the electric field is A cos .

A = A cos  so E = EA = EA cos .

 E  A
Remember the dot product?E
Electric Flux

If the electric field is not uniform, or the surface is not

flat…
divide the surface
into infinitesimal
surface elements
and add the flux
through each…
E  E E  dA
dA
A
Electric Flux

If the surface is closed (completely encloses a volume)

…

…we count* lines going

out as positive and
lines going in as
E negative…
 E E  dA
dA a surface integral, therefore a
double integral
Electric Flux
Use the simplest (easiest!) one that works.
 E EA Flat surface, E  A, E constant over surface.
Easy!
 E EA cos  Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over
surface.
 
 E E A Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over
surface.
 
 E E dA Surface not flat, E not uniform. Avoid, if
possible.
 
 E E dA Closed surface. Most general. Most complex.

If the surface is closed, you may be able to “break it up”

into simple segments and still use E=E·A for each
segment.
Gauss’ Law

Gauss's law states that the total electricflux

E
through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.

 E Qenc
Gauss’ Law
Qenc D dS  v dv
s v
Gauss’ Law

Differential form of Gauss’ Law

 v D

the volume charge density is the same as the

divergence of the electric flux density.
Gauss’ Law

We will find that Gauss law

gives a simple way to
calculate electric fields for
charge distributions that
exhibit a high degree of
symmetry…
 Point Charge Example

Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field

from an isolated point positive charge q.

To apply Gauss’ Law, we construct a “Gaussian

Surface” enclosing the charge.

The Gaussian surface should mimic the symmetry of the

charge distribution.

For this example, choose for our Gaussian surface a

sphere of radius r, with the point charge at the center.
 Point Charge Example
Starting with Gauss’s law, calculate the
electric field due to an isolated point
charge q.
We choose a Gaussian surface that is a
sphere of radius r centered on the
E point charge.
r q Since the charge is positive the field is
dA radial outward and everywhere
perpendicular to the Gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law then gives:

Symmetry tells us that the field is

constant on the Gaussian surface
 Strategy for Solving Gauss’ Law
Problems
 Select a Gaussian surface with symmetry that
matches the charge distribution.

 Draw the Gaussian surface so that the electric field

is either constant or zero at all points on the
Gaussian surface.
 Use symmetry to determine the direction of E on the
Gaussian surface.

 Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux).

 Determine the charge inside the Gaussian surface.

 Solve for E.
Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field
due to a long line of charge, with linear charge density
.

Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field

due to an infinite sheet of charge, with surface charge
density .
These are easy using Gauss’ Law (remember what a
pain they were in the previous chapter). Study these
examples and others in your text!


E line  .
2 0 r

E sheet  .
2 0
 Worked Example 1
mpute the electric flux through a cylinder with an axis parallel to the ele
d direction.
A
E

The flux through the curved surface is zero since E

is perpendicular to dA there. For the ends, the
surfaces are perpendicular to E, and E and A are
parallel. Thus the flux through the left end (into the
cylinder) is –EA, while the flux through right end
(out of the cylinder) is +EA. Hence the net flux
 Worked Example 2
n insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ and a tota
ositive charge Q. Calculate the electric field outside the sphere.
Since the charge distribution is
spherically symmetric we select a
spherical Gaussian surface of radius r >
E a centered on the charged sphere.
r
a Since the charged sphere has a positive
dA charge, the field will be directed radially
outward. On the Gaussian sphere E is
Q always parallel to dA, and is constant.
 
 Left side: 
 E dA  E dA  E dA  E 4 r 2
 
 Qin Q 
Right side:  Q 1 Q Q
0 0 
E 4 r 2
 or E 
4 0 r 2
 ke 2
r
0
 Worked Example 3 cont’d
Find the electric field at a point inside the sphere.
Now we select a spherical Gaussian
surface with radius r < a. Again the
symmetry of the charge distribution
r allows us to simply evaluate the left side
a
of Gauss’slawjust as before.
E dA  E dA  E dA  E 4 r 
 2
Left side:
Q
The charge inside the Gaussian sphere is no longer Q.
If we call the Gaussian sphere volume V’ then

4 3

Right side: Qin   V    r  Q 4  r 3
3 
E 4 r 2  in 
0
 3 0

4  r 3  Q 1 Q Q
E  r but   so E  r ke 3 r
3 0 4 r  3 0 4 4 0 a 3
2
 a3 a
3
 Worked Example 3 cont’d

Q
We found for r  a , E ke 2
r
ke Q a
and for r  a , E  3 r
a
Q
E
Let’s plot this:

a r
Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
• A good electrical conductor contains electrons that are
not bound to any atom and are free to move within the
conductor.
• If the electric field E is not zero in some area, the
electrons there feel a force F = E·q and start to move.
• The electrons adjust their positions until the force on
every electron is zero.
• When there is no net motion of charges within a
conductor, the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium.
 Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
he electric field is zero everywhere inside the conduc
Why is this so?
If there was a field in the conductor the charges
would accelerate under the action of the field.
The charges in the
---------------------
++++++++++++

conductor move creating

an internal electric field
Ein that cancels the applied
field on the inside of the
E E conductor
 Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
By electrostatic equilibrium we mean a situation whe
here is no net motion of charge within the conductor

The electric field is zero everywhere inside the

conductor
Any net charge resides on the conductor’s surface
The electric field just outside a charged conductor
is perpendicular to the conductor’s surface
 Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium

Gaussia
n
surface
is
labeled
A
Under electrostatic conditions, any excess
charge resides entirely on the surface of a
solid conductor.
The electric field is always perpendicular to the
surface of a conductor – if it weren’t, the
charges would move along the surface.
The electric field is stronger where the surface is
more sharply curved.
 Worked Example 4
Any net charge on an isolated conductor must reside on its
surface and the electric field just outside a charged conductor
is perpendicular to its surface (and has magnitude σ/ε0). Use
Gauss’s law to show this.For an arbitrarily shaped conductor
we can draw a Gaussian surface
inside the conductor. Since we have
shown that the electric field inside
an isolated conductor is zero, the
field at every point on the Gaussian
surface must be zero.
 Q
E dA  in
0

From Gauss’s law we then conclude

that the net charge inside the Gaussian
surface is zero. Since the surface can
be made arbitrarily close to the surface
of the conductor, any net charge must
reside on the conductor’s surface.
 Worked Example 4 cont’d
We can also use Gauss’s law to determine the electric field just
outside the surface of a charged conductor. Assume the
surface charge density is σ. Since the field inside the
conductor is zero there is no flux
through the face of the cylinder
inside the conductor. If E had a
component along the surface of
the conductor then the free
charges would move under the
action of the field creating surface
currents. Thus E is perpendicular
to the conductor’s surface, and
the flux through the cylindrical
surface must be zero.
Consequently the net flux through
Qin thecylinder
A is EA and Gauss’s law
 E EA  gives:  or E 
0 0 0
 Worked Example 5
A conducting spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius
b with a net charge -Q is centered on point charge +2Q. Use
Gauss’s law to find the electric field everywhere, and to
determine the charge distribution on the spherical shell.
-Q First find the field for 0 < r < a
This is the same as Ex. 2 and is the field due to
a point charge with charge +2Q.

+2Q 2Q
E ke 2
b r
Now find the field for a < r < b
The field must be zero inside a conductor in equilibrium. Thus
from Gauss’s law Qin is zero. There is a + 2Q from the point
charge so we must have Qa = -2Q on the inner surface of the
spherical shell. Since the net charge on the shell is -Q we can
get the charge on the outer surface from Qnet = Qa + Qb.
Qb= Qnet - Qa = -Q - (-2Q) = + Q.
 Worked Example 5 cont’d
-Q Find the field for r
> b the symmetry of the problem, the
From
field in this region is radial and
a everywhere perpendicular to the
spherical Gaussian surface.
+2Q Furthermore, the field has the same
value at every point on the Gaussian
b
surface so the solution then proceeds
  as in Ex. 2, but Qin=2Q-Q.
exactly
E dA  E dA  E dA  E 4 r 2
 
Gauss’s law now gives:

Qin 2Q  Q Q 1 Q Q
E 4 r 2
    or E  ke 2
0 0 0 4 0 r 2
r
 Summary

Two methods for calculating electric field

Coulomb’s Law
Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law: Easy, elegant method for
symmetric charge distributions
Coulomb’s Law: Other cases
Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law are
equivalent for electric fields produced by
static charges