Discrete Structures

Functions
Muhammad Shafiq

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 Recall the Cartesian Product

• All ordered n-tuples (2 tuples in our example)

• Let S = { Ali, Babar, Chishti } and G = { A, B, C }
• S×G = { (Ali, A), (Ali, B), (Ali, C), (Babar, A), (Babar, B),
(Babar, C), (Chishti , A), (Chishti , B), (Chishti , C) }
– A relation
• The final grades will be a subset of this:
– { (Ali, C), (babar, B), (Chishti, A) }

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 Grade Assignment
Ali A
Babar B
Chishti C

Ali A
Babar B
Chishti C

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 Function
• This assignment is an example of a function

• A function is a set of ordered pairs in which each

x-element has only ONE y-element associated
with it

• The concept of a function is extremely important

in mathematics and computer science

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 Definition 1
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A
to B is an assignment of exactly one element of B
to each element of A.

We write f (a) = b if b is the unique element of B

assigned by the function f to the element a of A.

If f is a function from A to B, we write f : A → B.

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 Specifying a Function

Many different ways:

• Sometimes we explicitly state the assignments,
as in previous figure
• Often we give a formula, such as f (x) = x + 1, to
define a function
• Other times we use a computer program to
specify a function

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 Definition 2
• If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is
the domain of f and B is the codomain of f.

Domain A B Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

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 Definition 2
• If f (a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and
a is a preimage of b.
Domain R Z Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

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Pre-image of 4 Image of 4.3
 Definition 2
• If f is a function from A to B, we say that f
maps A to B. f maps R to Z
R f:A→B Z
Domain Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

Pre-image of 4 Image of 4.3

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 Examples
A pre-image The image
Domain Co-domain of 1 of “a”
Ali A “a” 1

Babar B “bb“ 2

Chishti C “cccc” 3

Dawood D “dd” 4

Ammara F “e” 5

A class grade function A string length function

g(Ali) = A f(x) = length x

g(Babar) = C f(“a”) = 1
g(Chishti) = A f(“bb”) = 2
… …
 Definition 2
• The range of f is the set of all images of
elements of A.
Range
a 1
e 2
i 3
o 4
u 5

Some function…

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Not a valid function!

“a” 1
“bb“ 2
“cccc” 3
“dd” 4
“e” 5
 Exercise
• Let f : Z → Z
assign the square of an integer to this integer
• What is f (x) =?
– f(x) = x2
• What is domain of f ?
– Set of all integers
• What is codomain of f ?
– St of all integers
• What is the range of f ?
– {0, 1, 4, 9, . . . }. All integers that are perfect squares
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 Function arithmetic
• Just as we are able to add (+), subtract (-), multiply
(×), and divide (÷) two or more numbers, we are able
to + , - , × , and ÷ two or more functions

• Let f and g be functions from A to R. Then f + g, f – g,

f × g and f/g are also functions from A to R defined
for all x ∈ A by:
• (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
• (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
• (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) (f g)(x) Ξ (f × g)(x)
• (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) given that g(x)≠0 14
 Example
• Let f1 and g be functions from R to R such that:
• f(x) = x2 //square function
• g (x) = x − x2 //some other function
• What are the functions f + g and f g?
• f + g = (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = x2 + (x − x2) = x
• (f g) = (f g)(x) = f(x)g(x) = x2(x − x2) = x3 − x4
• What is f(x)+g(x) and f+g(x) if x=2?
• f(2)=4, g(2)=-2; f(2)+g(2) = 4-2=2
• f+g(2) = 2 15
 Another Example
• Let f and g be functions from R to R such that:
• f (x) = 3x+2
• g (x) = -2x + 1
• What is the function f g?

• f g = (f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) = (3x+2)(-2x+1) = -6x2- x +2

Let x = -1, what is f(-1).g(-1) and (f g)(-1)?
f (-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -1 (f g) (-1) = -6(-1)2 – (-1) + 2
g(-1) = -2(-1) + 1= 3 = -6+1+2
f(-1) g(-1) = -1×3 = -3 = -3 16
 One-to-one functions
• A function is one-to-one if each element in the
co-domain has a unique pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is one-to-one if
f(x) = f(y) implies x = y.
a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
5 5

A one-to-one function A function that is

not one-to-one 17
 More on one-to-one
• Injective is synonymous with one-to-one
– “A function is injective”
• A function is an injection if it is one-to-one
a 1
• Note that there can e 2

be un-used elements i 3
o 4
in a co-domain 5

A one-to-one function

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 Exercise
• Determine that the function f(x) = x2 of
type Z × Z is one-to-one.

• 0 -> 0
• 1 -> 1
• 2 -> 4
• 3 -> 9
• 10 -> 100

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 Onto functions
• A function is onto if each element in the co-
domain is an image of some pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is onto if for all
y  C, there exists x  D such that f(x) = y.
a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
u 5

An onto function A function that

is not onto
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 More on onto
• Surjective is synonymous with onto
– “A function is surjective”
• A function is a surjection if it is onto

• Note that there can a 1

be multiple used e 2

elements in the i 3
o 4
co-domain u

An onto function
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 Exercise
• Determine that the function f(x) = x2 of type Z × Z
is onto?
• No 0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
⁞ 4
5
6
⁞

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 Onto vs. one-to-one
• Are the following functions onto, one-to-one,
both, or neither?
a 1 a 1
a 1
b 2 b 2
b 2
c 3 c 3
c 3
4 d 4
4
1-to-1, not onto Both 1-to-1 and onto Not a valid function
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
d d 4
Onto, not 1-to-1 Neither 1-to-1 nor onto
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 Bijections
• Consider a function that is
both one-to-one and onto: a 1
b 2
c 3
• Such a function is a one-to-
d 4
one correspondence, or a
bijection

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• A relation is an Equivalence Relation if it is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

• Example − The relation R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),

(2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1)}
• on set A={1,2,3} is an equivalence relation since it
is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

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