Chapter 2

Atoms, Elements & Compounds

Objectives
 Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table
Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

All substances can be classified into one of these three types

Element
• A substance made of atoms that all contain
the same number of protons and cannot
be split into anything simpler
• There are 118 elements found in the
Periodic Table
 Compound

• A pure substance made up of two or more elements

chemically combined
• There is an unlimited number of compounds
• Compounds cannot be separated into their elements
by physical means
• E.g. copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4 ), calcium carbonate
(CaCO3 ), carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Mixture

• A combination of two or more substances

(elements and/or compounds) that are not
chemically combined
• Mixtures can be separated by physical
methods such as filtration or evaporation
• E.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulfur
powder and iron filings
Particle diagram showing elements,
compounds and mixtures
Objectives
 Atomic Structure
• All substances are made of tiny particles of
matter called atoms which are the building
blocks of all matter
• Each atom is made of subatomic particles
called protons, neutrons, and electrons
• The protons and neutrons are located at the
center of the atom, which is called the
nucleus
• The electrons move very fast around the
nucleus in orbital paths called shells
• The mass of the electron is negligible, hence
the mass of an atom is contained within the
nucleus where the protons and neutrons are
located
The structure of the carbon atom
 Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
• The size of atoms is so tiny that we can't really
compare their masses in conventional units such
as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the
relative atomic mass is used
• One relative atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• All other elements are measured relative to the
mass of a carbon-12 atom, so relative atomic
mass has no units
• Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic
mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of hydrogen
would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of
carbon
 The relative mass and charge of the sub-
atomic particles are shown below:

Table of Subatomic Particles

Defining Proton Number

• The atomic number (or proton number) is

the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom
• The symbol for atomic number is Z
• It is also the number of electrons present in a
neutral atom and determines the position of
the element on the Periodic Table
Defining Mass Number

• The Nucleon number (or mass number) is the

total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom
• The symbol for nucleon number is A
• The nucleon number minus the proton number
gives you the number of neutrons of an atom
• Note that protons and neutrons can collectively
be called nucleons
• The atomic number and mass number of an
element can be shown using atomic notation
• The Periodic Table shows the elements
together with their atomic (proton) number at
the top and relative atomic mass at the bottom
• there is a difference between relative atomic
mass and mass number, but for your exam, you
can use the
relative atomic mass as the mass number
(with the exception of chlorine)
Diagram showing atomic notation
 Deducing protons, neutrons & electrons
Finding the protons

• The atomic number of an atom and ion determines

which element it is
• Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element
have the same number of protons (atomic number)
in the nucleus
E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons)
where beryllium has atomic number of 4 (4 protons)
• The number of protons equals the atomic (proton)
number
The number of protons of an unknown element can
be calculated by using its mass number and number of
neutrons:
Finding the electrons

An atom is neutral and therefore has the

same number of protons and electrons

Finding the neutrons

The mass and atomic numbers can be used
to find the number of neutrons in ions and
atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number –
number of protons
Example
Determine the number of protons, electrons
and neutrons in an atom of element X with
atomic number 29 and mass number 63

The number of protons of element X is the same as the

atomic number
Number of protons = 29
The neutral atom of element X therefore also has 29
electrons
The atomic number of an element X atom is 29 and its
mass number is 63
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of
protons
Number of neutrons = 63 – 29
Number of neutrons = 34
 Electronic Configuration

• We can represent the structure of

the atom in two ways: using
diagrams called electron shell
diagrams or by writing out a special
notation called the electronic
configuration (or electronic
structure or electron distribution)
 Electron shell diagrams

• Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells

(or energy levels) and each shell has
a different amount of energy
associated with it The further away
from the nucleus, the more energy a
shell has
Electrons fill the shell closest to the
nucleus
• When a shell becomes full of electrons,
additional electrons have to be added
to the next shell
• The first shell can hold 2 electrons
• The second shell can hold 8 electrons
• For this course, a simplified model is
used that suggests that the third shell
can hold 8 electrons
• For the first 20 elements, once the
third shell has 8 electrons, the fourth
shell begins to fill
• The outermost shell of an atom is
called the valence shell and an atom
is much more stable if it can manage to
A simplified model showing the
electron shells
• The arrangement of electrons in shells
can also be explained using numbers
• Instead of drawing electron shell
diagrams, the number of electrons in
each electron shell can be written
down, separated by commas
• This notation is called the electronic
configuration (or electronic structure)
• E.g. Carbon has 6 electrons, 2 in the
1st shell and 4 in the 2nd shell
• Its electronic configuration is 2,4
• Electronic configurations can also be
written for ions
• E.g. A sodium atom has 11 electrons, a
sodium ion has lost one electron,
therefore has 10 electrons; 2 in the
first shell and 8 in the 2nd shell
• Its electronic configuration is 2,8
The Electronic Configuration of the First
Twenty Elements
Note: although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons,
the filling of the shells follows a more complicated pattern
after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the
third shell holds 8 and the remaining electrons (for reasons
of stability) occupy the fourth shell first before filling the
third shell.
Electron Shells & The Periodic Table
• There is a clear relationship between the
electronic configuration and how the Periodic
Table is designed
• The number of notations in the electronic
configuration will show the number of occupied
shells of electrons the atom has, showing the
period in which that element is in
• The last notation shows the number of outer
electrons the atom has, showing the group that
element is in (for elements in Groups I to VII)
• Elements in the same group have the same
number of outer shell electrons
The electronic configuration for chlorine
Period

The red numbers at the bottom show the

number of notations which is 3, showing that
a chlorine atom has 3 occupied shells of
electrons and is in Period 3
Group

The final notation, which is 7 in the

example, shows that a chlorine atom has 7
outer electrons and is in Group VII
he position of chlorine on the Periodic Table
• In most atoms, the outermost shell is not
full and therefore these atoms react with
other atoms in order to achieve a full
outer shell of electrons (which would
make them more stable)
• In some cases, atoms lose electrons to
entirely empty this shell so that the next
shell below becomes a (full) outer shell
• All elements wish to fill their outer shells
with electrons as this is a much more
stable configuration
The noble gases

• The atoms of the Group VIII elements (the

noble gases) all have a full outer shell of
electrons
• All of the noble gases are unreactive as
they have full outer shells and are thus very
stable
The noble gases are on the Periodic
Table in Group 8/0
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Objectives
Defining Isotopes

• Isotopes are different atoms of the

same element that contain the same
number of
protons but a different number of
neutrons
• The symbol for an isotope is the
chemical symbol (or word) followed by
a dash and then the mass number
• So C-14 ( or carbon-14) is the isotope of
carbon which contains 6 protons, 6
electrons and 14 - 6 = 8 neutrons
• It can also be written as C14 or C14
The Atomic Structure and Symbols of the Three
Isotopes of Hydrogen
 Why Isotopes Share Properties
• Isotopes of the same element display the
same chemical characteristics
• This is because they have the same
number of electrons in their outer shells
and, therefore, the same electronic
configuration and this is what determines
an atom's chemistry
• The difference between isotopes is the
number of neutrons which are neutral
particles within the nucleus and add mass
only
• The difference in mass affects the physical
• Isotopes are identical in appearance, so a
sample of C-14 would look no different from
C-12
• Water made from deuterium oxide is known
as 'heavy' water, and has a relative formula
of mass 20, compared to 18 for water, so it
is 20% heavier, but it would look, taste and
feel just like normal water However, it
wouldn't be a good idea to drink it
because it is toxic as it interferes with
biochemical reactions in your cells!
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 Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

• The symbol for the relative atomic mass

is Ar
• The relative atomic mass for each
element can be found in the Periodic
Table along with the atomic number
• The atomic number is shown above the
atomic symbol and the relative atomic
mass is shown below the atomic symbol
• Atoms are too small to accurately weigh
but scientists needed a way to compare
the masses of atoms
• The carbon-12 is used as the standard
atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
• It is against this atom which the masses
of all other atoms are compared
• Relative atomic mass (A ) can therefore
be defined as:
the average mass of the isotopes of an
element compared to 1/12th of the
mass of an atom of C
• The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
• The relative atomic mass of magnesium is
24 which means that magnesium is twice
as heavy as carbon
• The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1
which means it has one-twelfth the mass
• The relative atomic mass of an element can
be calculated from the mass number and
relative abundances of all the isotopes of
a particular element using the following
equation:

• The top line of the equation can be

extended to include the number of different
isotopes of a particular element present.
Examp
le
The table shows information about the
isotopes in a sample of rubidium
Is mass number and relative atomic mass the
same thing?
• On the Periodic Table provided in your exam you
will see that lithium has a relative atomic mass
of 7
• Although it seems that this is the same as the
mass number, they are not the same thing
because the relative atomic mass is a rounded
number
• Relative atomic mass takes into account the
existence of isotopes when calculating the mass
• Relative atomic mass is an average mass of all
the isotopes of that element
• For simplicity relative atomic masses are
often shown to the nearest whole number
The relative atomic mass of lithium to two
decimal places is 6.94 when rounded to the
nearest whole number, the RAM is 7, which
is the same as the mass number shown on
this isotope of lithium
Objectives
 Ions & Ionic Bonds
The Formation of Ions

• An ion is an electrically charged atom or

group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of
electrons
• An atom will lose or gain electrons to become
more stable
• The loss or gain of electrons takes place to
gain a full outer shell of electrons which is a
more stable arrangement of electrons
• The electronic configuration of an ion will be
the same as that of a noble gas –such as
helium, neon and argon
Formation of positively charged
sodium ion
Formation of negatively charged
chloride ion
Ionization of metals and non-metals

Metals:
• all metals can lose electrons to other
atoms to become positively charged
ions, known as cations
Non-metals:
• all non-metals can gain electrons from
other atoms to become negatively
charged ions, known as anions
 The Formation of Ionic Bonds

• Ionic compounds are formed when

metal atoms react with non-metal
atoms
• Metal atoms lose their outer electrons
which the non-metal atoms gain to
form positive and negative ions
• The positive and negative ions are held
together by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between
opposite charges
• This force of attraction is known as an
 Dot-and-cross diagrams
• Dot and cross diagrams
• are diagrams that show the
arrangement of the outer shell
electrons in an ionic or covalent
compound or element
• The electrons are shown as dots and
crosses
• In a dot and cross diagram:
Only the outer electrons are shown The
charge of the ion is spread evenly which
is shown by using brackets The charge
Electrostatic forces between the
positive Na ion and negative Cl ion
 Ionic Bonds between Group I & Group
VII Elements
Example: Sodium Chloride, NaCl
Explanation
• Sodium is a Group I metal so will lose one outer
electron to another atom to gain a full outer shell
of electrons
• A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is
formed
• Chlorine is a Group VII non-metal so will need to
gain an electron to have a full outer shell of
electrons
• One electron will be transferred from the outer
shell of the sodium atom to the outer shell of the
• chlorine
The oppositely
atom charged ions are held together
• Aby strong atom
chlorine electrostatic
will gainforces of attraction
an electron to form a
• negatively
The ionic compound has noion
charged chloride overall
with charge
a charge of
• 1-Formula of ionic compound: NaCl
 Ionic Bonds & Lattice Structure
he Lattice Structure of Ionic Compounds
Lattice structure

• Ionic compounds have a giant lattice

structure
• Lattice structure refers to the arrangement
of the atoms of a substance in 3D space
• In lattice structures, the atoms are
arranged in an ordered and repeating
fashion
• The lattices formed by ionic compounds
consist of a regular arrangement of
alternating positive and negative ions
The lattice structure of NaCl
Ionic Bonds between Metallic & Non-
Metallic Elements
Ionic compounds

• Ionic compounds are formed when

metal atoms and non-metal atoms
reactThe ionic compound has no
overall charge
Example: Magnesium Oxide, MgO

Diagram showing the dot-and-cross diagram of

magnesium oxide
 Explanation
• Magnesium is a Group II metal so will lose two
outer electrons to another atom to
have a full outer shell of electrons
• A positive ion with the charge 2+ is formed
• Oxygen is a Group VI non-metal so will need to
gain two electrons to have a full
outer shell of electrons
• Two electrons will be transferred from the outer
shell of the magnesium atom to
the outer shell of the oxygen atom
• Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a
negative ion with charge 2-
• Magnesium oxide has no overall charge
Formula of ionic compound: MgO
Properties of Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds are usually solid at room

temperature
• They have high melting and boiling points
• Ionic compounds are good conductors of
electricity in the molten state or in
solution
• They are poor conductors in the solid state
Explaining the Properties of Ionic
Compounds
• Ionic substances have high melting and boiling
points due to the presence of strong
electrostatic forces acting between the
oppositely charged ions
• These forces act in all directions and a lot of
energy is required to overcome them
• The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger
the electrostatic forces and the higher the
melting point will be
• For example, magnesium oxide consists of Mg+2
and O-2 so will have a higher melting point than
sodium chloride which contains the ions, Na+
and Cl-
• For electrical current to flow there must
be freely moving charged particles such
as electrons or ions present
• Ionic compounds are good conductors of
electricity in the molten state or in
solution as they have ions that can
move and carry a charge
• They are poor conductors in the solid
state as the ions are in fixed positions
within the lattice and are unable to move
Molten or aqueous ions move freely but
cannot in solid form
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Objectives
 Covalent Bonds
The Formation of Covalent Bonds
Covalent compounds
• Covalent compounds are formed when pairs of
electrons are shared between atoms
• Only non-metal elements participate in covalent
bonding
As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer
shell of electrons, giving them a noble gas
electronic configuration
• When two or more atoms are covalently bonded
together, we describe them as ‘molecules’
• Dot-and-cross diagrams can be used to show
the electric configurations in simple
molecules
• Electrons from one atom are represented by
a dot, and the electrons of the other atom
are represented by a cross
• The electron shells of each atom in the
molecule overlap and the shared electrons
are shown in the area of overlap
• The dot-and-cross diagram of the molecule
shows clearly which atom each electron
originated from
Diagram showing how a covalent bond forms
between two chlorine atoms
 Single Covalent Bonds

Many simple molecules exist in which two adjacent

atoms share one pair of electrons, also known as a
single covalent bond (or single bond)
Common Examples of Simple Molecules

Hydrogen:
Chlorine:

Water:
Methane:
Ammonia:
Hydrogen chloride:
Covalent Bonds in Complex Covalent
Molecules

• Some atoms need to share more than

one pair of electrons to gain a full
outer shell of electrons
• If two adjacent atoms share two pairs
of electrons, two covalent bonds are
formed,
also known as a double bond
• If two adjacent atoms share three
pairs of electrons, three covalent
bonds are
formed, also known as a triple bond
Nitrogen:
• When 2 nitrogen atoms react they share 3 pairs
of electrons to form a triple bond
Ethene:
Methanol:
Carbon Dioxide:
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Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds

• Small molecules are compounds made up of

molecules that contain just a few atoms
covalently bonded together
• They have low melting and boiling points so
covalent compounds are usually liquids or
gases at room temperature
• As the molecules increase in size, the melting
and boiling points generally increase
• Small molecules have poor electrical
conductivity
Explaining the Properties of Simple
Molecular Compounds
• Small molecules have covalent bonds joining
the atoms together, but intermolecular forces
that act between neighboring molecules
• They have low melting and boiling points as
there are only weak intermolecular forces
acting between the molecules
• These forces are very weak when compared
to the covalent bonds and so most small
molecules are either gases or liquids at room
temperature
• As the molecules increase in size the
intermolecular forces also increase as there
are more electrons available
• This causes the melting and boiling points to
increase
The bonds between hydrogen and oxygen in
water are COVALENT, and the attractions between
the molecules are INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
which are about one tenth as strong as covalent
bonds
Electrical Conductivity
• Molecular compounds are poor
conductors of electricity as there are
no free ions or electrons to carry the
charge.
• Most covalent compounds do not
conduct at all in the solid state and are
thus insulators
• Common insulators include the plastic
coating around household electrical
wiring, rubber and wood
The plastic coating around electrical wires
is made from covalent molecules that do
not allow a flow of charge
Objectives
 Giant Structures
Structure of Graphite & Diamond

• Diamond and graphite are allotropes

of carbon which have giant covalent
structures
• Both substances contain only carbon
atoms but due to the differences in
bonding arrangements they are
physically completely different
• Giant covalent structures contain
billions of non-metal atoms, each
joined to adjacent atoms by covalent
 Diamond

• In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with

four other carbons, forming a
tetrahedron
• All the covalent bonds are identical, very
strong and there are no intermolecular
forces
Diagram showing the structure and
bonding arrangement in diamond
Graphite

• Each carbon atom in graphite is

bonded to three others forming
layers of hexagons, leaving one
free electron per carbon atom
which becomes delocalized
• The covalent bonds within the
layers are very strong, but the
layers are attracted to
each other by weak
intermolecular forces
The structure and bonding in graphite
 Uses of Graphite & Diamond
Properties of Diamond

• Diamond has the following physical

properties:
• It does not conduct electricity
• It has a very high melting point
• It is extremely hard and dense
• All the outer shell electrons in carbon
are held in the four covalent bonds
around each carbon atom, so there
are no freely moving charged
particles to carry the current thus it
cannot conduct electricity
• The four covalent bonds are very strong
and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large
amount of heat energy is needed to break
the lattice thus it has a very high
melting point
• Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful
for purposes where extremely tough
material is required Diamond is used in
jewelry due to its sparkly appearance and
as cutting tools as it is such a hard
material
• The cutting edges of discs used to cut
bricks and concrete are tipped with
diamonds
Properties of Graphite
• Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming
layers of hexagonal-shaped forms, leaving one free
electron per carbon atom
• These free (delocalized) electrons exist in between
the layers and are free to move through the structure
and carry charge, hence graphite can conduct
electricity
• The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong
but the layers are connected to each other by weak
forces only, hence the layers can slide over each
other making graphite slippery and smooth
Graphite thus:
• Conducts electricity
• Has a very high melting point
• Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond
• Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial
lubricant, in engines and in locks
 Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide
• Silicon(IV) oxide (also known as silicon
dioxide or silica), SiO2 , is a
macromolecular compound which
occurs naturally as sand and quartz
• Each oxygen atom forms covalent
bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each
silicon
atom in turn forms covalent bonds
with 4 oxygen atoms
• A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon
atom and four oxygen atoms, similar to
diamond
Diagram showing the structure of SiO2
with the silicon atoms in blue and the
oxygen atoms in red
Comparing Diamond & Silicon(IV) Oxide

• SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent

bonds and no intermolecular forces
so it has similar properties to
diamond
• It is very hard, has a very high
boiling point, is insoluble in water
and does not conduct electricity
• SiO2 is cheap since it is available
naturally and is used to make
sandpaper and to line the inside of
furnaces
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Objectives
 Metallic Bonding
• Metal atoms are held together strongly by
metallic bonding in a giant metallic lattice
• Within the metallic lattice, the atoms lose
the electrons from their outer shell and
become positively charged ions
• The outer electrons no longer belong to a
particular metal atom and are said to be
delocalized
• They move freely between the positive
metal ions like a 'sea of electrons'
• Metallic bonds are strong and are a result
of the attraction between the positive
metal ions and the negatively charged
Diagram showing metallic lattice
structure with delocalized electrons
 Properties of Metals

• Metals have high melting and

boiling points
• There are many strong metallic
bonds in giant metallic structures
between the positive metal ion
and delocalized electrons
• A lot of heat energy is needed to
break these bonds
 Metals conduct electricity
• There are free electrons available to move
through the structure and carry charge
• Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a
delocalized electron to displace itself from the
other end
• Hence electrons can flow so electricity is
Metals are malleable and ductile
conducted
• Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and
take up different positions
• Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the outer
electrons do not belong to any particular metal atom
so the delocalized electrons will move with them
• Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result
metals are strong but flexible
• They can be hammered and bent into different shapes
or drawn into wires without breaking
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