Lesson

Lesson 66

Total Quality Management (TQM):

Tools & Techniques for Quality Design and Control
Statistical Process Control
02nd October 2024
Statistical
Statistical Process
Process Control
Control (SPC)
(SPC)
 Variability is inherent in every process
 Natural or common causes

 Special causes

 SPC charts provide statistical signals when assignable

causes are present
 SPC approach support the detection and elimination of
assignable causes of variation
Common
Common Cause
Cause Variations
Variations

 Also called common causes

 Affect virtually all production processes
 Generally this required some change at the
systemic level of an organization
 Managerial action is often necessary
 The objective is to discover when avoidable
common causes are present
 Eliminate the root causes of the common
variations
Assignable
Assignable Variations
Variations

 Also called special causes of variation

 Generally this is some change in the local
activity or process
 Variations that can be traced to a specific
reason at a localized activity
 The objective is to discover when special
causes are present
 Eliminate the root causes of the special
variations
 Incorporate the good causes
Outline
Outline

 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

 Control Charts for Variables
 Setting Mean Chart Limits (x-Charts)
 Setting Range Chart Limits (R-Charts)
 Process Capability
 Process Capability Ratio (Cp)
 Process Capability Index (Cpk )
 Samples
Samples

To measure the process, we take samples

and analyze the sample statistics following
these steps
Each of these
represents one
(a) Samples of the sample of five
product, say five boxes of cereal
boxes of cereal
taken off the filling Frequency
# #

machine line, vary # # #

from each other in # # # #
weight # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # # #

Figure S6.1 Weight

 Samples
Samples

To measure the process, we take samples

and analyze the sample statistics following
these steps
The solid line
represents the
(b) After enough distribution
samples are
taken from a
stable process, Frequency
they form a
pattern called a
distribution

Figure S6.1 Weight

Attributes
Attributes of
of Distributions
Distributions

(c) There are many types of distributions, including the

normal (bell-shaped) distribution, but distributions
do differ in terms of central tendency (mean),
standard deviation or variance, and shape

Central tendency Variation Shape

Frequency

Weight Weight Weight

Figure S6.1
Identifying
IdentifyingPresence
Presenceof
ofCommon
CommonSources
Sourcesof
ofVariation
Variation

(d) If only common causes of variation are present, the

output of a process forms a distribution that is stable
over time and is predictable

Prediction
Frequency

e
Tim
Weight Figure S6.1
Identifying
IdentifyingPresence
Presenceof
ofSpecial
Special Sources
Sourcesof
ofVariation
Variation

(e) If assignable causes are present, the process

output is not stable over time and is not predicable
?
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? ?
? ?
? ?
? ?
? ??
?? ?

Prediction
Frequency

ime
T
Weight Figure S6.1
 Data
Data Used
Used for
for Quality
Quality Judgments
Judgments
Variables Attributes
 Characteristics that can  Defect-related
take any real value characteristics

 May be in whole or in  Classify products as

fractional numbers either good or bad or
count defects
 Continuous random
variables, e.g. weight,  Categorical or discrete
length, duration, etc. random variables
Central
Central Limit
Limit Theorem
Theorem

Regardless of the distribution of the population,

the distribution of sample means drawn from the
population will tend to follow a normal curve

1. The mean of the sampling

distribution (x) will be the same as x=
the population mean 
2. The standard deviation of the
sampling distribution (x) will equal x =

the population standard deviation n
() divided by the square root of the
sample size, n
 Interpreting
Interpreting SPC
SPC Charts
Charts

(a) In statistical
control and capable
of producing within
Frequency control limits

Lower Control Limit Upper Control Limit

(b) In statistical control
but not capable of
producing within
control limits

(c) Out of statistical control

and incapable of producing
Size within limits
(weight, length, speed, etc.) Figure S6.2
Population
Population and
and Sampling
Sampling Distributions
Distributions

Three population Distribution of

distributions sample means

Beta Mean of sample means = x

Standard
deviation of 
the sample = x =
Normal n
means

Uniform

| | | | | | |

-3x -2x -1x x +1x +2x +3x

95.45% fall within ± 2x
99.73% of all x
fall within ± 3x Figure S6.3
Steps
Steps In
In Creating
Creating Control
Control Charts
Charts
1. Take representative sample from output of a process over a
long period of time, e.g. 10 units every hour for 24 hours.
2. Compute means and ranges for the variables and calculate the
control limits
3. Draw control limits on the control chart
4. Plot a chart for the means and another for the mean of ranges
on the control chart
5. Determine state of process (in or out of control)
6. Investigate possible reasons for out of control events and take
corrective action
7. Continue sampling of process output and reset the control limits
when necessary
Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for Variables
Variables

 For variables that have continuous

dimensions
 Weight, speed, length, strength, etc.
 x-charts are to control the central tendency
of the process
 R-charts are to control the dispersion of the
process
 These two charts must be used together
Setting
Setting Chart
Chart Limits
Limits

For x-Charts when we know 

Upper control limit (UCL) = x + zx
Lower control limit (LCL) = x - zx
where x =mean of the sample means or a
target value set for the process
z =number of normal standard
deviations
x =standard deviation of the
sample means
=/ n
 =population standard deviation
 Setting
Setting Control
Control Limits
Limits
Hour 1 Hour Mean Hour Mean
Sample Weight of 1 16.1 7 15.2
Number Oat Flakes 2 16.8 8 16.4
1 17 3 15.5 9 16.3
2 13 4 16.5 10 14.8
3 16 5 16.5 11 14.2
4 18 6 16.4 12 17.3
n=9 5 17
6 16 For 99.73% control limits, z = 3
7 15
8 17 UCLx = x + zx = 16 + 3(1/3) = 17 ozs
9 16
Mean 16.1 LCLx = x - zx = 16 - 3(1/3) = 15 ozs
 = 1
Setting
Setting Control
Control Limits
Limits

Control Chart
for sample of 9 Variation due
Out of to assignable
boxes control causes

17 = UCL

Variation due to
16 = Mean natural causes

15 = LCL

Variation due
| | | | | | | | | | | |
to assignable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Out of causes
Sample number control
Patterns
Patterns in
in Control
Control Charts
Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Normal behavior. Process is “in

control.”
Figure S6.7
Patterns
Patterns in
in Control
Control Charts
Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

One plot out above (or below).
Investigate for cause. Process is
“out of control.”
Figure S6.7
Patterns
Patterns in
in Control
Control Charts
Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Trends in either direction, 5 plots.
Investigate for cause of
progressive change.
Figure S6.7
Patterns
Patterns in
in Control
Control Charts
Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Run of 5 above (or below) central
line. Investigate for cause.
Figure S6.7
Process
Process Capability
Capability

 The natural variation of a process should

be small enough to produce products that
meet the standards required
 A process in statistical control does not
necessarily meet the design specifications
 Process capability is a measure of the
relationship between the natural variation
of the process and the design
specifications
 Process
Process Capability
Capability Ratio
Ratio

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6
 A capable process must have a Cp of at
least 1.0
 Does not look at how well the process is
centered in the specification range
 Often a target value of Cp = 1.33 is used to
allow for off-center processes
 Six Sigma quality requires a Cp = 2.0
Process
Process Capability
Capability Ratio
Ratio

Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes

Process standard deviation  = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp = 6
Process
Process Capability
Capability Ratio
Ratio

Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation  = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp = 6

= 213 - 207 = 1.938

6(.516)
Process
Process Capability
Capability Ratio
Ratio

Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation  = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp = 6

= 213 - 207 = 1.938

6(.516) Process is
capable
 Process
Process Capability
Capability Index
Index

Upper Lower
Cpk = minimum of Specification, - x x - Specification
Limit Limit
 

 A capable process must have a Cpk of at least

1.0
 A capable process is not necessarily in the
center of the specification, but it falls within the
specification limit at both extremes
Process
Process Capability
Capability Index
Index

New Cutting Machine

New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation  = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches
Process
Process Capability
Capability Index
Index

New Cutting Machine

New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation  = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250
Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005
Process
Process Capability
Capability Index
Index

New Cutting Machine

New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation  = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005 (3).0005

Both calculations result in

New machine is
.001
Cpk = = 0.67 NOT capable
.0015
 Process
Process Capability
Capability Comparison
Comparison
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation  = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6

New machine is
Cp = .251 - .249 = 0.66 NOT capable
.0030
Interpreting
Interpreting C
Cpkpk

Cpk = negative number

Cpk = zero

Cpk = between 0 and 1

Cpk = 1

Cpk > 1
Figure S6.8
Thank

You

Production and Operations Management: Dr (Eng.)

Musebe 2023
35