EML 5237 Intermediate Mechanics of Materials

Mechanical Testing and Mohr Circle (Reading)

Dr. Yuanli Bai

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

University of Central Florida

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 Part 1
MECHANICAL TESTING

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 Outline

 Stress and strain diagram

 Stress-strain behavior of ductile and brittle materials
 Poisson’s ratio
 Hooke’s law
 Strain Energy
 Shear stress-shear strain diagram
 Example Problems

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 Material tensile test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E

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 Stress and strain diagram
 Material tension tests

• Standard samples (ASTM)

• Initial cross-section area and gauge-length

• Curvature

• Alignment during testing

• Use of strain gauge

• Tensile testing v.s. compressive testing

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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)
Testing machine companies
- MTS
- Instron

Aluminum alloy

Camera for optimal

measurement

Extensometer
Steel

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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)

- From froce-displacement
curve to stress-strain curve.

P
 eng 
Ao

 eng 
Lo

stress

strain
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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)
 Conventional (Engineering) Stress-Strain Diagram

P
 eng 
Ao

 eng 
Lo

The initial cross-section

area and initial length of
gauge section are used!

Factors that affect stress-strain curves

• Composition
• Structure
• Manufacture procedure
• Loading rate
• Testing temperature
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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)
 True Stress-Strain Diagram

P
 true 
A
d
d  true 
L

Actual cress-sectional area and

specimen length at the instant the
load are measured.

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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)
P
 eng  • Elastic behavior
Ao
- Linear stress-strain relation up to proportional limit
 - After proportional limit, the curve tends to bend until
 eng 
Lo elastic limit (yield stress).
- Usually yield stress and proportional limit are
very close to each other.
- Up to the yield stress, the specimen will return to
its original shape if the load is removed.

• Yielding
- When stress is slightly higher than the yield
stress, the specimen will not return to its
original shape even the load is removed.
- Permanently deformation; plastic deformation.
- Perfectly plastic: the specimen will continue
to elongate without any increase in load.
- Some materials exhibit large perfectly plastic;
some show very short perfectly plastic.

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 Stress and strain diagram (cont.)
P • Strain hardening
 eng 
Ao - Increase in strain needs increase in stress
 - strain hardening
 eng  - Stress-strain curve has a maximum stress,
Lo which is called ultimate stress
- Up to this point, as the specimen elongates
its cross-sectional area decreases uniformly.

• Necking
- After the maximum stress, the cross-sectional area
decreases in a localized area – called necking.

Necking in - Fracture stress, Fracture strain.

Dog-bone
specimens

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 Stress-strain behavior of ductile and brittle materials
 Ductile Materials
• Material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures

• Percent elongation
L f  Lo
Percent elongation  (100%)
Lo
L f : length at fracture
Lo : original length

• Percent reduction in area

Ao  A f
Percent elongation  (100%)
Ao
A f : the area of the neck at fracture
Ao : original cross - sectional area

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 • Offset yield strength

- Many materials do not have well-defined yield point.

- 0.2% offset yield point

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  Brittle Materials
• Material that exhibit little or no yielding before failure
• Fracture is due to the propagation of cracks
• Difference between tension and compression

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 Hooke’s Law
 Hooke’s Law

• For linear portion of a stress-strain curve,

 E
E : modulus of elasticity or Young' s modulus
 Strain Hardening

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 Strain Energy

• Load X displacement leads to energy

• Energy is due to deformation, so called strain energy

• Strain energy density: strain energy per unit volume of material

U 1
u  
V 2
For linear elastic deformation
12
u
2 E

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  Modulus of Resilience

Strain energy density at the stress reaches the proportional limit.

1  pl
2
1
u   pl  pl 
2 2 E

 Modulus of Toughness
Strain energy density of the material just before it fractures.

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 Poisson’s ratio

 Strain along longitudinal (axial) direction


 long 
L

 Strain along laterial (radial) direction

'
 lat 
r

 Poisson's ratio
 lat
 
 long

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 Stress and Strain Relationship
 Load and unload
 Modulus of resilience
 Modulus of toughness

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 Poisson ratio Conventional materials, v = 0 - 0.5.

material poisson's ratio

Incompressible materials
rubber ~ 0.50
(0.50)
gold 0.42
saturated clay 0.40–0.50
magnesium 0.35
titanium 0.34
copper 0.33
aluminium-alloy 0.33
clay 0.30–0.45
stainless steel 0.30–0.31
Typical engineering materials
steel 0.27–0.30
(0.27-0.33)
cast iron 0.21–0.26
sand 0.20–0.45
concrete 0.2
glass 0.18–0.3
foam 0.10–0.40
Unconventional materials
cork ~ 0.00
(v <0 )
auxetics negative
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Auxetics
*Data from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson's_ratio
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 The shear stress- shear strain diagram

 For elastic portion

 G
G is called shear modulus of elasticity

 For isotropic materials

E
G
2(1  v)

(Will be shown in section 10.6)

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 Example 3.1

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 Example 3.1 (cont.)

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 Example 3.3

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 Example 3.3 (cont.)

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 Example 3.3 (cont.)

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 Example 3.6

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 Example 3.6 (cont.)

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 Summary: Material mechanical properties

Properties that can be measured by tension test

• Proportional stress/strain
• Yield strength
• Ultimate stress/strain
• Fracture stress/strain
• 0.2% offset stress
• Percent elongation
• Percent reduction in area
• Young’s modulus, E
• Shear modulus, G
• Poisson’s ratio, v
• Modulus of Resilience
• Modulus of Toughness

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 Part 2
STRESS TRANSFORMATION AND MOHR
CIRCLE

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 Outline

 Plane-Stress Transformation
 General Equations of Plane-Stress Transformation
 Principal Stresses and maximum in Plane Shear Stress
 Mohr’s Circle – Plane-Stress
 Absolute Maximum Shear Stress

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 Plane-Stress Transformation
•Transform the stress components that are associated with a particular coordinate system into
components associated with a coordinate system having a different orientation.

General case: Plane stress:

three normal stresses two normal stresses
three independent shear stresses one independent shear stresses

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 General Equations of Plane-Stress
Transformation

 Sign Convention

• + x and + x’ axes are used to define the outward normal

from a side of the element
• The x and x’ are positive when they act in positive
x and x’ directions; and xy and x’y’ are positive when
they act in positive y and y’ directions.
• The orientation of the plane on which the normal and
shear stress components are to be determined will be
defined by the angle , which is measured from
the + x to + x’; and z (z’) axis is established by the
right-hand rule.

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  Normal and shear stress components

• The element is sectioned along the inclined plane.

• The sectioned area is A,
The area of the horizontal and vertical faces are
A sin  A cos 
• Equations of equilibrium

F x' 0  x ' A  ( xy A sin  ) cos   ( y A sin  ) sin 

- ( xy A cos  ) sin   ( x A cos  ) cos  0
 x ' x cos 2    y sin 2    xy (2 sin  cos  )
  y  x   y
 x ' x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2

F y' 0  x ' y ' A  ( xy A sin  ) cos   ( y A sin  ) sin 

- ( xy A cos  ) sin   ( x A cos  ) cos  0
 x ' y '( y   x ) cos  sin    xy (cos 2   sin 2  )
x  y
 x ' y ' sin 2   xy cos 2
2

  y  x   y
 y ' x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2 34
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 Example problem 9.2

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 Principal Stresses and maximum in Plane Shear Stress
• The normal and shear stress depend on the angle of inclination 
• There must be orientation(s) on them the normal stress is maximum or minimum,
and shear stress is maximum.
• It is important to find these orientations.

 In-plane principal stresses

• The maximum and minimum normal stresses are called principal stresses
• To determine them, we need to differentiate below equation,

d x ' d  x  y  x   y
 [  cos 2   xy sin 2 ]  xy
d d 2 2 tan 2 p 
x  y ( x   y ) / 2
 ( 2 sin 2 )   xy (2 cos 2 ) 0
2

d y ' d  x  y  x   y
 [  cos 2   xy sin 2 ]
d d 2 2  xy
tan 2 p 
x  y ( x   y ) / 2
 ( 2 sin 2 )   xy (2 cos 2 ) 0
2

• The 2p from above equation will have two roots (within 360 o), which are 180o apart,
so two p (p1 and p2) are 90o apart 37
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   y x  y 2 2
 1, 2 x  ( )   xy
2 2

x  y
 x ' y ' sin 2   xy cos 2 0
2

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  Maximum in-plane shear stress
• To determine the maximum shear stress, we need to differentiate below equation,
d x ' y ' d x  y
 [ sin 2   xy cos 2 ]
d d 2
x  y
 ( 2 cos 2 )   xy (2 sin 2 ) 0
2
( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s 
 xy

• Again, the 2s from above equation will have two roots (within 360 o), which are 180o apart,
so two s (s1 and s2) are 90o apart.

• Importantly, the 2s and 2p are 90o apart, so s and p are 45o apart, meaning an element
that subjected to maximum shear stress will be 45 o from the position of an
element that is subject to the principal stress.

x  y
 max  ( ) 2   xy2
2

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  x  y
 average 
2

  y x  y 2 2
 1, 2 x  ( )   xy
2 2

  y x  y 2 2
 1 x  ( )   xy
2 2

  y x  y 2 2
 2 x  ( )   xy
2 2

x  y
 1   22 ( ) 2   xy2 2 max
2

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 Problem : Prove that the sum of the normal stresses x + y = x’ + y’ is constant.

Answer:
  y  x   y
 x ' x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
  y  x   y
 y ' x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2

 x  y
 x '  y '2  x   y
2

During transformation, the sum of the normal stresses remains constant

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 Example problem 9.3

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 Example problem 9.5

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 Example problem 9.6

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 Mohr’s Circle – Plane-Stress

  y  x   y
 x ' x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x  y
 x ' y ' sin 2   xy cos 2
2
 x  y x  y
 x '  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2

 x  y x  y x  y
( x ' ) 2   x2' y ' ( cos 2   xy sin 2 ) 2  ( sin 2   xy cos 2 ) 2
2 2 2
x  y x  y
( cos 2 ) 2  2( cos 2 )( xy sin 2 )  ( xy sin 2 ) 2
2 2
x  y x  y
( sin 2 ) 2  2( sin 2 )( xy cos 2 )  ( xy cos 2 ) 2
2 2
x  y
( ) 2   xy2
2

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 ( x '  avg ) 2   x2' y ' R 2

  y
 avg  x
2

x  y
R ( ) 2   xy2
2

Each point on Mohr’s circle represents the two stress components x’ and x’
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 • At the special point on Mohr’s circle (A), the two stress components are x and x
• At= 180o, point G

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 Example problem 9.7

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 Example problem 9.9

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 Absolute Maximum Shear Stress
Consider plane stress only.

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   y  2
 avg  x 
2 2

x  y  2 2 2
R ( ) 2   xy2  ( ) 
2 2 2

Maximum shear stress

( x '  avg ) 2   x2' y ' R 2

 max  2
2
2 2
( x ' ) 2   x2' y ' ( )2
2 2

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   y 1
 avg  x 
2 2

x  y 1 1
R ( ) 2   xy2  ( )2 
2 2 2

Maximum shear stress

( x '  avg ) 2   x2' y ' R 2

 max  1
2
1 1
( x ' ) 2   x2' y ' ( )2
2 2

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   y 1  2
 avg  x 
2 2

x  y 1   2 1   2
R ( ) 2   xy2  ( )2 
2 2 2

Maximum shear stress

( x '  avg )  
2 2
x' y' R 2

 
 max  1 2
1  2 1   2 2
( x ' ) 
2 2
x' y' ( ) 2

2 2

For the case where both normal stresses are positive, the absolute maximum shear stress is


 max  1
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 1 1
( x ' ) 2   x2' y ' ( )2
2 2 2 2
( x ' ) 
2 2
x' y' ( ) 2

2 2

1  2 1   2
( x ' ) 2   x2' y ' ( )2
2 2

For the case where two normal stresses have opposite sign,
the absolute maximum shear stress is
 
 max  1 2
2
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 For a general stress state, if tree principal stresses of

 1  2  3
Then maximum shear stress is

1   3
 max 
2

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 Example problem 9.11

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