UNIT -4- (10 Hrs)

Induction type relay: Non-directional and directional over current relays, Principle of
operation of Differential relay, percentage differential relay, bias characteristics, Distance
relay: Three stepped distance protection, Impedance relay, Reactance relay, Mho relay,
Buchholz relay, Negative Sequence relay.
Protection Schemes:
Generator Protection: Merz price protection, protection, Transformer Protection:
Differential protection,
Induction motor protection: Protection against electrical faults.
Relay Definition: A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a
single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have any
number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break contacts, or combinations
thereof.
Types of Protective Relays
1.Induction type relay
Non-directional and directional over current relays
Differential relay
Percentage differential relay
2. Distance relay
Impedance relay,
Reactance relay,
Mho relay,
Buchholz relay,
Negative Sequence relay
Types of Protection Schemes
1. Generator Protection
2. Transformer Protection
3. Induction motor protection
Non-directional Induction Type Overcurrent
Relay:
This relay is also called earth leakage induction
type relay. The overcurrent relay operates when
the current in the circuit exceeds a certain preset
value.
The induction type nondirectional overcurrent
relay has a construction similar to a watthour
meter, with slight modification. The figure shows
the constructional of nondirectional induction
type overcurrent relay. It consists of two
electromagnets.
The upper is E shaped while the lower is
U shaped. The aluminium disc is free to rotate
between the two magnets. The spindle of the disc
carries moving contacts and when the disc rotates
the moving contacts come in contact with fixed
contacts which are the terminals of a trip circuit. Figure: Non-directional Induction Type Overcurrent
The upper magnet has two windings, primary and Relay
secondary.
 The primary is connected to the secondary of C.T on the line to be protected. This winding is tapped at
intervals. The tappings are connected to plug setting bridge. With the help of this bridge, the number of
turns of the primary winding can be adjusted. Thus the desired current setting for the Non-Indirectional
Induction Overcurrent Relay can be obtained. There are usually seven sections of tappings to have the
overcurrent range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%.
 These values are percentages of the current rating of the relay.Thus a relay current rating may be 10 A i.e.
it can be connected to C.T. with the secondary current rating of 10 A but with 50 % setting the relay will
start operating at 5A.
 So adjustment of the current setting is made by inserting a pin between spring loaded jaw of the bridge
socket, at the proper tap value required. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of changing the setting
while Non-Indirectional Induction Overcurrent Relay is in service then relay automatically adopts a higher
current setting thus secondary of C.T. is not open circuited.
 So relay remains operative for the fault occurring during the process of changing the setting. The
secondary winding on the central limb of upper magnet is connected in series with winding on the lower
magnet. This winding is energized by the induction from the primary. By this arrangement of secondary
winding, the leakage fluxes of upper and lower magnets are sufficiently displaced in space and time to
produce a rotational torque on the aluminium disc.
 The control torque is provided by the spiral spring. When current exceeds its preset value, the disc rotates
and moving contacts on spindle make the connection with trip circuit terminals. The angle through which
the disc rotates is between 0° to 360°. The travel of the moving contacts can be adjusted by adjusting the
angle of rotation of the disc.
Operation:
 The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle. This
torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring.
 Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current, Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary.
 However, if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque.
 Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts when the
disc has rotated through a pre-set angle.
 The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.
 Time-Current Characteristics of Non-Indirectional
Induction Overcurrent Relay:
The time required to rotate the disc depends on
a torque. The torque varies as current in the primary
circuit. More the torque, lesser is the time required
hence Non-Indirectional Overcurrent relay has inverse
time characteristics. The figure shows the time-current
characteristics for the Non-Indirectional overcurrent
relay. Such characteristics are called Inverse Definite
Minimum Type (I.D.M.T.) characteristics.
This is because the characteristics show the inverse
relation between time and current for small values of
currents.
But as current increases, some definite time is required by the relay. So the characteristics becomes
straight line for higher values of currents. Such IDMT characteristics can be obtained by saturating the
iron in the upper magnet so that there cannot be increase in the flux once current achieves certain high
value.
The Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M) can be obtained,
P.S.M =
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current × C.T Ratio
Calculation of Relay Operating Time:
Practically, it is necessary to calculate the actual operating time of the relay, under the specific fault
current levels. For these calculations, the following parameters related to the Non-Indirectional
Induction Overcurrent Relay must be known.
1. Time/P.S.M. curve or tabular data.
2. Current setting.
3. Time setting multiplier.
4. Level of fault current.
5. Corresponding C.T. ratio.

This Non-Indirectional Induction Overcurrent Relay operating time can be obtained as,
1. Using the C.T ratio, convert the fault current level to relay coil current level.
2.Calculate the plug setting multiplier from the relay coil current and current setting.
3. From the Time/P.S.M curve on data, obtain the time corresponding to the plug setting multiplier
calculated above.
4. Multiplying the time obtained by time multiplier setting, the actual relay time can be obtained.
Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay:
Constructional details: Fig. shows the constructional
details of a typical Induction Type Directional
Overcurrent Relay. It consists of two relay elements
mounted on a common case viz.
1. Directional element & 2. Non-directional element.
1. Directional element: It is essentially a directional
power relay which operates when power flows in a
specific direction. The potential coil of this element is
connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the
system voltage. The current coil of the element is
energised through a C.T. by the circuit current. This
winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-
directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the
directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the overcurrent element. Figure: Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay
Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other
words, the directional element must operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 2 should close) in order to operate
the overcurrent element.
2. Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a nondirectional
overcurrent relay. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes the fixed
contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of direc­tional element.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting but has been
omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper magnet of
overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Operation:
Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit protected by the
relay. Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay (upper element) does not operate,
thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower element) unenergised. However, when a short-circuit
occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the reverse direction. Should this happen,
the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for
overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates
the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged that final
tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following conditions are satisfied:
1. Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
2. Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
3. Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent element.
Differential relay:
What is Differential Relay?
The relay which works once the phasor difference for a minimum of two or above the same
electrical quantities exceeds a fixed amount is known as a differential relay. Generally, most of the
relays work when any quantity goes beyond a fixed value however, this relay works based on the
difference between two or more same electrical quantities.

 The function of a differential relay is to provide high-speed, sensitive & naturally selective
protection.
 These relays will not provide safety to turn-to-turn winding faults within machines and transformers
due to the small growth within the generated current by those faults, which stay under the relay’s
pickup sensitivity.
Types of Differential Relay
These relays are classified into three types
i. Current differential,
ii. Voltage balance, and
iii. Percentage differential relay or biased beam relay.
Differential Relay Working Principle
 Differential relay works on the principle of comparison between the phase angle & two or more same
electrical quantities magnitudes. Comparing these two electrical quantities within a circuit with a
differential relay is very simple in application & positive in action.
 For instance, in comparison to the entering current & leaving current in a line, if a huge current goes
through the protected line as compared to the current leaving from it, then additional current must
supply within the fault. So, the difference between the two electrical quantities can control a relay to
separate the circuit.
 In normal operating conditions, the entering & leaving currents are equivalent in phase & magnitude
thus the relay will not work. However, if any fault occurs within the system, then these flow of currents
will be no longer equivalent in phase & magnitude.
 This kind of relay is used in such a way that the difference between
the entering & leaving current supplies throughout the relay’s
operating coils. So, the relay coil can be energized in fault
conditions because of the various quantity of the current. So, this
relay functions & opens the circuit breaker for tripping the circuit.
 In the above differential relay circuit, there are two current transformers which are connected to any
face of the power transformer like one CT is connected on the primary side and the other is connected
at the secondary side of the PT . This relay simply compares the flow of currents on both sides. If
there is any unbalance in the current flow of the circuit then this relay tends to operate. These relays
can be current differential, voltage balance & biased differential relays.
i. Current Balance Differential Relay:
 This differential relay works whenever there is a fault in the protected region then there will be a
variation in the entering & leaving current of that region. So by comparing these currents either in
phase or magnitude or in both, we can detect the fault within the protected region. if the difference
beats a fixed value then this relay compares the two currents & transmits a trip signal to the CB
(circuit breaker). The differential relay protection circuit connections for the normal condition or
external fault & during internal fault are shown in the following figure correspondingly.
 The two CTs in the above circuit are utilized at every end
of the section to be protected. In between the two CTs, the
relay coil is simply connected at the equipotential position
so that there is no flow of current throughout the relay coil
in normal conditions. So that malfunctioning of the relay
can be avoided.
 In normal & external fault conditions from the above circuit, the flow of current moving into the
protected region is equivalent to the flow of current going away from the protected region (I1 – I2 =
0). Therefore no flow of current will be there throughout the relay coil. So, it remains out of service.
 Similarly, in an internal fault case from the above figure, the flow of current into the protected region
is dissimilar from the flow of current leaving it (I1 – I2 ≠ 0). So these current flow differences are
known as the circulating current which is fed to the operating coil of the relay & the relay works if the
operating torque is higher as compared to the restraining torque.
ii.Voltage Balance Differential Relay:
 The two CTs in the voltage balance differential relay are simply connected at any side of the element
to be protected that is alternator winding which is shown in the figure. This type of relay simply
compares two voltages either in phase or magnitude or in both & it trips the relay circuit if the
difference exceeds a fixed set value.
 The CT’s primary windings have similar current ratios which are connected with the pilot wire in
series. These wires are connected always by simply connecting two circuit ends as shown in the figure
& CTs secondary winding is connected to the operating coil of the relay.
 In the relay circuit, the flow of current in both the main windings of
CTs will be the same at normal operating conditions. So when the flow
of current is the same, then the voltage within the secondary winding
will be the same. So, there is no flow of current in the operating coil of
a relay.
 Similarly in the faulty conditions, a phasor difference will exist within
the primary coil’s currents. Thus, there is a difference in voltage at the
secondary winding. Now a phasor difference will exist in the
secondary coil’s voltage which is fed to the operating coil of the relay
and it is connected with the secondary winding in series. Because of
this, the flow of current will be there throughout the operating coil of
the relay.
iii. Percentage Differential Relay or Biased Beam Relay:
Definition: The percentage differential relay is defined as the relay that operates on the phase difference
of two or more similar electrical quantities. It is the advanced form of differential protection relay. The
only difference between them is the restraining coil. The percentage differential relay consists restraining
coil for overcoming the trouble arising out of differences in the current ratio for the high value of an
external short circuit current.
 The percentage differential system consists of a restraining coil connected in the pilot wire as shown in
the figure below and the current induced in both the CTs flows through it. The operating coil places
between the midpoint of the restraining coil.
 The restraining coil controls the sensitive characteristic
of the relay. It restricts the unwanted tripping of the
transformer due to the imbalance current. The
restraining coil also restrains the harmonics in the
inrush current.
Working of Percentage Differential Relay:
 The torque due to the restraining coil prevents the closing of the trip circuit while the torque due to
the operating coil tends to close the trip circuit contacts.
 Under normal operating conditions and through load condition the torque developed by the
restraining coil is greater than the operating coil torque. Thus the relay remains inoperative.
 When an internal fault occurs, the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque then the trip circuit
contacts are closed to open the circuit breaker. The restraining torque may adjust by varying the
number of turns of the restraining coil.
 The differential current required to utilise this relay is a
variable quantity, due to the effect of the restraining coil.
The differential current in the operating coil is proportional
to (I1-I2), and the restraining coil is proportional to (I 1-I2)/2
as the operating current is connected to the midpoint of the
restraining coil. For external faults both I 1 and I2 increase
and thereby the restraining torque increase, which prevents
the maloperation.
Operating Characteristic of the Percentage Differential Relay
The operating characteristic of the relay is shown in the figure below. The above graph shows that the
ratio of their operating current and restraining current is fixed percentage. This relay is also called the
biased differential relay because the restraining coil is also called a bias coil as it provides additional
flux.
Advantages:
 Digital signal handling is completely possible with a 16-bit microprocessor.
 This is the most significant protection within the power system.
 Measuring accuracy is high on all the ranges of settings because of a precise 16-bit analog-to-digital
conversion method.
 These are very simply adaptable to different alarm & substation systems.
 These relays are very responsive because they cannot differentiate between minor faults & heavy
loads.
 These relays avoid malfunctions within a network.
Disadvantages:
 The current differential relay accuracy in heavy current flow will get affected because of the pilot
cable’s capacitance.
 The CT in this relay cannot have similar characteristics or ratings because of the pilot cable
impedances & constructional errors. So this causes a relay to operate incorrectly.
 The construction of a voltage balance type relay becomes complex to achieve the perfect balance
between CTs.
 The protection of this relay can be used effectively for shorter-length lines.
Applications:
The applications of differential relay include the following.
 This relay is very frequently used in protecting generators & transformers from localized faults.
 Usually, these relays are mainly used for protecting the equipment from internal faults. So, Merz
price protection is one type of differential relay, used to guard the alternator’s stator winding from the
inner faults.
 This kind of relay protects the winding of a transformer.
 These are perfectly suitable for the protection of compact items and also power system equipment
like bus bars, generators, reactors, transmission lines, transformers, feeders, etc.
Distance Relay:
Definition: Distance protection relay is the name given to the protection, whose action depends on the
distance of the feeding point to the faulty location. The time of operation of such protection is a
function of the ratio of voltage and current, i.e., impedance. This impedance between the relay and the
fault depends on the electrical distance between them.
What is the Distance Relay?
The distance relay is also referred to as the impedance relay or distance protection element or voltage-
controlled device. It’s working mainly depends on the distance between the impedances of the points
where the fault occurs and where the relay is installed (feeding point). The relay gets operated when the
ratio of voltage and current is set to a predetermined value or less than the relay preset value. This type
of relay is used for backup protection, fault protection, phase protection, and main protection of
transmission and distribution lines. It is also called as ratio relay.
 In short, a distance relay one whose performance is based on the measurement of impedance,
reactance or admittance of line between the location of relay and the point where fault occurs.
Types of Distance relays:
1. Impedance relay
2. Reactance relay
3. Admittance relay or Mho relay
Distance relay: Three stepped distance protection:
 Distance relays are used for the protection of transmission lines
 The inputs for distance relay are three phase current and voltage phasors during fault occurrence
 Transmission line is segregated into several zones of protection normally zone 1, zone 2 and
 Three units of impedance relays are required at a particular location for three zones of protection zone
3 as shown in the figure below.
 In developing an overall Scheme of Distance Protection, it is necessary to provide a number of relays
to obtain the required discrimination. Modern practice is to adopt definite distance method of
protection applied in 3 zones (steps).
 A number of distance relays are used in association with timing relays so that the power system is
divided into a number of zones with varying tripping times associated with each zone.
 The first zone tripping which is instantaneous is normally set to 80% of the protected section.
 The zone 2 protection with a time delay sufficient for circuit breaker operating time and
discriminating time margin covers the remaining 20% portion of the protected section plus 25 to 40%
of the next section. Also in the Scheme of Distance Protection the Zone 2 also provides backup
protection for the relay in the next section for faults close to the bus.
 Zone 3 with still more time delay provides complete backup protection for all faults at all locations.
 In practice, the initial pickup of the zone 3 relay may be used as a starter for the equipment, since its
own measuring action will take place only after a long time delay.
Now if fault can be fed from both ends as in the case of an interconnected system, assuming zone 1 to
be 80 % of the protected section then there will be 40% of the feeder on which faults will finally be
cleared in the zone 2 time. This is clear from Fig. This is undesirable from stability point of view and in
general it will be necessary to avoid this delay. This is possible if the distance relay which has tripped
instantaneously in zone 1 sends an intertrip signal to remote end of the feeder in order to trip the
breaker quickly in preference to waiting for zone 2 tripping.
Zone 1:
 It is normal practice to adjust the first unit to protect only up to 80%-90% of the protected line.
 The protected zone of the first unit called the first zone of protection.
 It is a high speed unit and is used for the primary protection of the protected line.
 Its operation is instantaneous; about 1 to 2 cycles.
 This unit is not set to protect the entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach.
 If the relay operates for a fault beyond the protected line, this phenomenon is called overreach.
 Overreach may occur due to transients during the fault condition.
Zone 2:
 The main purpose of the second unit is to protect the rest of the protected line, which is beyond the
reach of the first unit.
 The setting of the second unit is so adjusted that it operates the relay even for arcing faults at the end
of the line. To achieve this, the unit must reach beyond the end of the line.
 The normal practice is to set the second zone reach up to 50% of the shortest adjoining line section.
 The protective zone of the second unit is known as the second zone of protection.
 The second zone unit operates after a certain time delay. Its operating time is usually 0.2 s to 0.5s.
Zone 3:
 The third zone of protection is provided for back-up protection of the adjoining line.
 Its reach should extend beyond the end of the adjoining line under the maximum under reach which
may be caused by arcs, intermediate current sources and errors in CT, PT and measuring units.
 The protective zone of the third stage is known as the third zone of protection.
 The setting of the third zone covers the first line, i.e. the protected line plus the longest second line
plus 25% of the third line.
 The time-delay for the third unit is usually 0.4 s to 1 s.
Impedance Type Distance Relay:
Definition: The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty
section and the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance relay. It is a
voltage controlled equipment.
 The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the impedance of
the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing their contacts.
 The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT and PT
respectively.
 If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts operating then the relay starts operating.
 The relay gets operated when the ratio of voltage
and current is set to a predetermined value or less
than the relay preset value.
 This type of relay is used for:
 Backup protection, fault protection,
 Phase protection, and
 Main protection of transmission and
distribution lines.
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay
 In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But when
the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The line
current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the impedance
decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.
 The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer
supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current transformer.
The current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
 Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB.
The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall
below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
 Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault
decreases the impedance of the line below the relay
setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its
send the tripping command to the circuit breaker. If the
fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts
of the relay remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay
The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the impedance relay.
The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage storage element generates
the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is given below.

The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current. When the
relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

Dividing both sides by K2I2

If the spring control effect becomes neglected then K 3 = 0, the equation becomes
The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in
the figure below. The positive torque region of the impedance
relay is above the operating characteristic line. In positive torque
region, the impedance of the line is more than the impedance of
the faulty section. Similarly, in negative region, the impedance of
the faulty section is more than the line impedance.

The impedance of the line is represented by the radius of the

circle. The phase angle between the X and R axis represents the
position of the vector. If the impedance of the line is less than the
radius of the circle, then it shows the positive torque region. If
the impedance is greater than the negative region, then it
represents the negative torque region.

This type of relay is called the high-speed relay.

Electromagnetic Type Impedance Relay
 In such type of relay, the torque is induced by the
electromagnetic action on the voltage and current. These
torques are compared.
 Consider the circuit of the electromagnetic type
induction relay. The solenoid B is excited by the voltage
supplied of the PT.
 This voltage develops the torque in the clockwise
direction, and it pulls the plunger P2 in the downward
direction.
 The spring connects to the plunger P2 apply the
restraining force on it. This spring generates the
mechanical torque in the clockwise direction.
 The solenoid A generates the other torque in the clockwise direction and thus moves the plunger P1
downwards. The solenoid one is excited by the CT of the lines. This torque is called the deflecting or
pick up torque.
 When the system is free from fault, the contacts of the relay become open. When the fault occurs in the
protective zone, the current of the system rises because of which the current across the relay also
increases. The more torque developed on the solenoid A. The restoring torque because of the voltage
decreases. The balance arms of the relay start rotating in the opposite direction, thus closed their
Induction Type Impedance Relay
 The circuit diagram of the induction type impedance
relay is shown in the figure below. This relay consists
current and voltage element. The relay has an aluminium
disc, which is rotating between the electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet has two separate windings. The
primary winding is connected to the secondary coil of the
current transformer.
 The current setting of the winding is varied by the help
of the plug bridge placed below the relay.
 The electromagnetics of the relay connects in series with
each other.
 The flux induce between the electromagnets produces the rotational torque, which rotates the
aluminium disc of the relay. The permanent magnet provides the controlling and braking torque.
 In normal operating conditions the force exerted on the armature is more than the induction element
which keeps the trip contacts open.
 When the fault occurs in the system, then the aluminium disc starts rotating, and their rotation is
directly proportional to the current of the electromagnet. The rotation of the disc-wound the spring.
Drawbacks of Plan Impedance Relay
The following are the disadvantages of the impedance relay.

 It gives the response on both the side of the CT and PT. Thus, it becomes difficult for the breaker to
determine whether the fault is external or internal.
 The relay is easily affected by the arc resistance of the line.
 It is very sensitive to the power swing. The powerful swings generate the faults on the line because
of which the impedances of the line vary.
 The relay always operates when the impedance of the line is less than the relay settings.
Reactance Relay:
 The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent element
and a current-voltage directional element.
 In Reactance Relay the operating torque is obtained from the current and the restraining torque by the
current and voltage of the directional element.
 The current element developed positive torque and a current-voltage developed directional element
which opposes the current element depending on the phase angle between current and voltage.
 Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional element is arranged
to develop maximum negative torque when its current lag behinds its voltage by 90°.
Construction of Reactance Relay
A typical reactance relay using the induction cup
structure is shown in the figure. It has a four-pole
structure carrying operating, polarizing, and
restraining coils, as shown in the figure. The
operating torque is developed by the interaction of
fluxes due to current carrying coils, i.e., the
interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining
torque is produced by the interaction of fluxes due
to poles 1, 2 and 4.
The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque will be
proportional to VI cos (θ – 90°). The desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of
resistance-capacitance circuits, as illustrated in the figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the
torque equation becomes,

where θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net torque is zero, and hence

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay
The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is the reactance of the
protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is the resistance component of the
impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance component of the impedance has no consequence
on the working of the relay, the relay reacts solely to the reactance component. The point below the
operating characteristic is called the positive torque region.
This type of relay is not capable of selecting
whether the fault has taken place in the section
where the relay is located, or it has taken place in
the adjoining section when used on the transmission
line. The directional unit used with the reactance
relay will not be same as used with the impedance
type relay because the restraining reactive volt-
ampere, in that case, will be nearly equal to zero.
Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a
directional unit that is inoperative under load
conditions.
Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground
relay for ground fault because its reach is not
affected by fault impedance.
Buchholz Relay:
Construction:
The Buchholz relay has two hinged which is placed in the
metallic chamber. This metallic chamber is connected
through the pipe between the conservator and main tank.
The one of the hinged is placed in the upper portion of the
metallic chamber along with the mercury switch. This
mercury switch is used for activating the alarm. The other
float is placed in the lower portion of the metallic chamber
along with the mercury switch. The mercury switch is used
for actuating the tripping circuit.
Working Principle of Buchholz Relay
When the fault occurs inside the transformer, the
temperature of the oil increases. The oil evaporates in the
form of the gas. The generation of the gas depends on the
magnitude of the fault occurs inside the transformer. The
internal failure occurs in the transformer either because of
the insulation breakdown between the winding or the
winding have the weak initial contact.
Operation of Buchholz Relay
 The internal fault of the transformer
induces the arc inside the main tank. The
oil of the transformer starts heating
because of the thermal effect.
 The gas moves upwards, and few of their
vapours are collected in the upwards area
of the main tank. Because of the
evaporation, the level of oil inside the
transformer tank starts decreasing.

 The mercury switch placed inside the metallic chamber becomes tripped, and the relay gives the
alarm to the personnel. The supply of the transformer becomes close, and it is disconnected to the
system for maintenance. The relay has test cock which is used for releasing the pressure of the
chamber.
 When the severe fault occurs inside the transformer, the lower mercury switch placed inside the
metallic chamber becomes slightly tilted because of which the tripping circuit becomes closed. Thus,
the transformer is disconnected from the main circuit.
 The minimum operating time of the relay is 0.1 seconds
Mho Relay (or) admittance relay
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also
known as the admittance relay. In this relay
operating torque is obtained by the volt-amperes
element and the controlling element is developed
due to the voltage element. It means a mho relay is a
voltage controlled directional relay.
Construction & Working:
 A mho relay using the induction cup structure is
shown in the figure. The operating torque is
developed by the interaction of fluxes due to pole
2, 3, and 4 and the controlling torque is
developed due to poles 1, 2 and 4.
 In this relay the operating torque is obtained by V and I element while the restraining torque is obtained
by a voltage element. Thus an admittance relay is a voltage restrained directional relay.
 The operating torque is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the windings carried by the
poles 1, 2 and 3. While the restraining torque is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the
windings carried by the poles 1, 3 and 4.
 Thus the restraining torque is proportional to the square of the voltage (V 2) while the operating torque
is proportional to the product of voltage and current (VI). The torque angle is adjusted using series
tuning circuit.
Torque Equation
The operating torque is proportional to VI while restraining torque is proportional to V 2. Hence net
torque is given by,

Where

This is the equation of a circle having diameter K 1/K, passing through origin. And this constant K/K2 is
the ohmic setting of this relay.
Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay
As seen from the torque equation, the characteristics of this relay is a circle passing through origin with
diameter as K1/K2.
Let, ohmic setting of relay = diameter
The circle is shown in the Figure.
 The relay operates when the impedance seen by
the relay falls within this circle.
 Consider two lines AB and AC with mho relay
located at the point A.
 The relay will operate for the faults occurring in
the section AB only and not for the faults
occurring in the section AC.
 This shows that this relay is inherently
directional without any additional directional unit
required.
 The angle can be adjusted to be 45°, 60°, 75° and
so on. This angle is maximum torque angle.
 The setting of 45° is used for high voltage (33 or 11 kV) distribution lines, the setting of 60° is used
for 66 or 132 kV lines while the setting of 75° is used for 275 and 400 kV lines.
Negative Sequence Relays
 The negative relays are also called phase unbalance
relays because these relays provide protection
against negative sequence component of unbalanced
currents existing due to unbalanced loads or phase-
phase faults.
 The unbalanced currents are dangerous from
generators and motors point of view as these
currents can cause overheating.
 Negative sequence relays are generally used to give
protection to generators and motors against
unbalanced currents.
 A negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which
is operative only for negative sequence components.
Low order of over current also can cause dangerous
situations hence a negative sequence relay has low
current settings.
 The earth relay provides protection for phase to earth fault but not for phase to phase fault. A negative
sequence relay provides protection against phase to phase faults which are responsible to produce
negative sequence components. The Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of negative phase sequence
 Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network. The magnitudes of the impedances of all the
branches of the network are equal. The impedances Z1, and Z3 are purely resistive while the
impedances Z2 and Z4, are the combinations of resistance and reactance.
 The currents in the branches Z2 and Z4, lag by 60° from the currents in the branches Z 1, and Z3. The
vertical branch B-D consists of inverse time characteristics relay. The relay has negligible impedance.
 The current IR gets divided into two equal parts I1 and I2.
And I2 lags I by 60°. The phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.
Let I1+I2 = IR
I1= I2= I
 The perpendicular is drawn from point A on the diagonal
meeting it at point B, as shown in the Fig. This bisects the
diagonal.

----- (1)
 Now I1 leads IR by 30° while I2 lags IR by 30°. Similarly the current lB gets divided into two equal
parts I3, and I4. The current I3 lags I4, by 60°. From equation (1) we can write,
 13 = 14 ----- (2)
 The current I4, leads IB by 30° while current I3 lags IB by 30°.
 The current entering the relay at the junction point B in the Fig. is the vector sum of I1, I3, and ly
Therefore Irelay = I1+ I3 + Iy
 When the load is balanced and no negative sequence current exist. It can be seen from the figure that
I1+ I3 = -IY
I1+ I3 + IY= 0
 Thus the current entering the relay at point B is
zero. Similarly the resultant current at junction D
is also zero. Thus the relay is inoperative for a
balanced system.
 Now consider that there is unbalanced load on generator or motor due to which negative sequence
currents exist. The phase sequence of C.T. secondary currents is as shown in the Fig. (a). The vector
diagram of I1, I3, and ly is shown in the Fig. (b) under this condition.
 The components I1, and I3, are equal and opposite to each other at the junction point B. Hence I1, and
I3, cancel each other.
 Now the relay coil carries the current l y and when this current is more than a predetermined value,
the relay trips closing the contacts of trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker.
 Induction Type Negative Phase Sequence Relay:
 This type of induction type negative phase sequence relay has similar construction as that of an
induction type overcurrent relay.
 The difference lies only in the primary winding provided on the central limb of the upper
electromagnet which is provided with a central tap resulting into three terminals 1, 2 and 3 of this
winding, as shown in Fig 9.63.
 The upper half is energized from phase R through CT and
an auxiliary transformer while lower half is energized from
phase Y through CT.
 The auxiliary transformer has special construction in order
that the output current of this transformer lags by 120° from
the input, as illustrated in Fig. 9.64 (a).
Operation For Positive Sequence Currents:
From Fig. 9.64, it is obvious that the currents I’ R and IY flowing
through the primary winding of the relay are in opposition, the
auxiliary transformer is so arranged that I’R and IY are of equal
magnitude. Thus the relay remains inoperative for a balanced
system.

Operation For Negative Sequence Currents:

When there is a fault on the system resulting into a
negative phase sequence currents, there is a flow of
current I through the primary winding of the relay,
as illustrated in Fig. 9.65(c). When the current
flowing through the relay primary exceeds the relay
setting, the relay operates and trips the circuit.
Protection Schemes:
1. Generator Protection
2. Transformer Protection
3. Induction motor protection

Generator Faults:
1. Stator faults
a. Phase to Earth fault
b. Phase to Phase fault
c. Inter- turn fault involving turns of same phase winding
2. Rotor Faults
d. Conductor to earth faults and short circuit between the turns of the field winding
e. Unsymmetrical field system due to short circuit the part of the field winding
f. rotating magnetic field which rotates in opposite direction to that of rotor magnetic field due to
negative sequence current. This causes overheating of the rotor
3. Abnormal Running Conditions
In practice there are number of situations in which generator is subjected to some abnormal running
conditions. The protection must be provided against the abnormal conditions. These abnormal
conditions include,
a. Overloading
b. Overspeeding
c. Unbalanced loading
d. Overvoltage
e. Failure of prime mover
f. Loss of excitation (Field failure)
g. Cooling system failure
Merz-Price Protection (or) Biased Differential scheme of Alternator Stator Windings
 This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator windings. The scheme is also
called biased differential protection and percentage differential protection.
 In this method, the currents at the two ends of the protected section are sensed using current
transformers. The wires connecting relay coils to the current transformer secondaries are called pilot
wires.
 Under normal conditions, when there is no fault in the windings, the currents in the pilot wires fed
from C.T. secondaries are equal. The differential current i 1 - i2 through the operating coils of the relay
is zero. Hence the relay is inoperative and system is said to be balanced.
 When fault occurs inside the protected section of the stator windings, the differential current i 1, - i2
flows through the operating coils of the relay. Due to this current, the relay operates. This trips the
generator circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section. The field is also disconnected and is discharged
through a suitable impedance.
 The Fig shows a schematic arrangement of Merz-Price protection scheme for a star connected
alternator.
 The differential relay gives protection against short circuit fault in the stator winding of a generator.
The C.T.s are connected in star and are provided on both, the outgoing side and machine winding
connections to earth side. The restraining coils are energized from the secondary connection of C.T.s in
each phase, through pilot wires. The operating coils are energized by the tappings from restraining
coils and the C.T. neutral earthing connection.
Figure: Merz-Price protection scheme for a star connected alternator
Figure: Merz-Price protection scheme for a Delta connected alternator
 The similar arrangement is used for the delta connected alternator stator winding. as shown in the
figure.
 The C.T.s on the delta connected machine winding side are connected in delta while the C.T.s at
outgoing ends are connected in star. The restraining coils are placed in each phase, energized by the
secondary connections of C.T.s while the operating coils are energized from the restraining coil
tappings and the C.T. neutral earthing.
 If there is a fault due to a short circuit in the protected zone of the windings, it produces a difference
between the currents in the primary windings of C.T.s on both sides of the generator winding of the
same phase. This results in a difference between the secondary currents of the two currents
transformers.
 Thus, under fault conditions, a differential current flows through the operating coils which is
responsible to trip the relay and open the circuit breaker. The differential relay operation depends on
the relation between the current in the operating coil and that in the restraining coil.
This scheme provides very fast protection to the stator winding against phase to phase faults and phase to
ground faults. If the neutral is not grounded or grounded through resistance then additional sensitive
earth fault relay should be provided.
The advantages of this scheme are,
1. Very high speed operation with operating time of about 15 ms.
2. It allows low fault setting which ensures maximum protection of machine windings.
3. It ensures complete stability under most severe through and external faults.
4. It does not require current transformers with air gaps or special balancing features.
Transformer Protection:
 The transformers are static devices without having any rotating part and are totally enclosed. Hence
the chances of fault occurring on transformers are much rare as compared to the fault occurring on
generators. Similarly possibilities of running on abnormal conditions are also less in transformers
compared to generators.
 But though the fault possibility is rare, if fault occurs, the transformer must be quickly disconnected
from the system. The rare faults if not cleared quickly can get developed into the major faults which
may be very serious for the transformer. Hence the protection must be provided to the transformers
against possible faults.
 The power transformers having large ratings always need some type of automatic protective relaying
equipments, to give protection against the possible faults.
Possible Transformer Faults
 The generators are subjected to the number of faults and abnormal conditions but the transformers are
not. The various possible transformer faults are,
1. Overheating
2. Winding faults
3. Open circuit
4. Through faults
5. Over fluxing
Percentage Differential Protection for Transformers:
 The percentage differential protection or Merz-Price protection based on the circulating current
principle can also be used for the transformers. This system gives protection against phase to phase
faults and phase to ground faults to the power transformers.
 The principle of such a protection scheme is the comparison of the currents entering and leaving the
ends of a transformer. The vector difference of currents (I1 - I2) passes through the operating coil while
the average current (I1 + I2/ 2) passes through the restraining coil.
 In normal conditions, the two currents at the two ends of the transformer are equal and balance is
maintained. So no currents flow through the operating coil of the relay and and relay is inoperative.
 But when there is phase to phase fault or phase to ground fault, this balance gets disturbed. The
difference current flows through the operating coil due to which relay operates, tripping the circuit
breaker.
 Compared to the differential protection used in generators, there are certain important points which
must be taken care of while using such protection for the power transformers. These points are,
 In a power transformer, the voltage rating of the two windings is different. The high voltage
winding is low current winding while low voltage winding is high current winding. Thus there
always exists difference in current on the primary and secondary sides of the power
transformer. Hence if C.T.s of same ratio are used on two sides, then relay may get operated
through there is no fault existing. To compensate for this difficulty, the current ratios of C.T.s
on each side are different. These ratios depend on the line currents of the power transformer.
 In case of power transformers, there is an inherent phase difference between the voltages induced in
high voltage winding and low voltage winding. Due to this, there exists a phase difference between
the line currents on primary and secondary sides of a power transformer. This introduces the phase
difference between the C.T. secondary currents, on the two sides of a power transformer. Through the
turns ratio of C.T.s are selected to compensate for turns ratio of transformer, a differential current may
result due to the phase difference between the currents on two sides. Such a different current may
operate the relay though there is no fault. Hence it is necessary to correct the phase difference.
 To compensate for this, the C.T. connections should be such that the resultant currents fed into the
pilot wires from either sides are displaced in phase by an angle equal to the phase shift between the
primary and secondary currents. To achieve this, secondaries of C.T.s on star connected side of a
power transformer are connected in delta while the secondaries of C.T.s on delta connected side of a
power transformer are connected in star.
 The neutrals of C.T. star and power transformer stars are grounded.
 Many transformers have tap changing arrangement due to which there is a possibility of flow of
differential current. For this, the turns ratio of C.T.s on both sides of the power transformer are
provided with tap for of C.T.s on both sides of the power transformer are provided with tap for their
adjustment.
For the sake of understanding, the connection of C.T. secondaries in delta for star side of power
transformer and the connection of C.T. secondaries in star for delta side of power transformer is shown
in the Fig. (a) and (b).
Merz-Price Protection for Star-Delta Transformer:
The Merz-Price protection for the star-delta power transformer. The primary of the power transformer is
star connected while the secondary is delta connected. Hence to compensate for the phase difference, the
C.T. secondaries on primary side must be connected in delta while the C.T. secondaries on delta side must
be connected in star. The star point of the power transformer primary as well as the star connected C.T.
secondaries must be grounded. The circuit diagram of the scheme is shown in the Figure.
 The restraining coils are connected across the C.T. secondary windings while the operating coils are
connected between the tapping points on the restraining coils and the star point of C.T. secondaries.
 With the proper selection of turns ratio of C.T.s the coils are under balanced condition during normal
operating conditions. The C.T. secondaries carry equal currents which are in phase under normal
conditions. So no current flows through the relay and the relay is inoperative.
 With an internal fault in power transformer windings, the balance in the C.T.s get disturbed. The
operating coils of differential relay carry currents proportional to the difference of current between the
two sides of a power transformer. This causes the relay operation which trips the main circuit breakers
on both the sides of the power transformer.
 It is important to note that this scheme gives protection against short circuit faults between the turns
i.e. interturn faults also. This is because when there is an interturn fault, the turns ratio of power
transformer gets affected. Due to this the currents on both sides of the power transformer become
unbalanced. This causes an enough differential current which floes through the relay and the relay
operates.
Merz-Price Protection for Star-Star Transformer:
The Figure shows the Merz-Price protection system for the star-star power transformer. Both primary
and secondary of the power transformer are connected in star and hence C.T. secondaries. The operating
coils are connected between the tapping on the restraining coil and the ground. The operation of the
scheme remains same for any type of power transformer as discussed for star-star power transformer.
Problems Encountered in Differential Protection:
The problems encountered in the simple differential protection are,
1. Unmatched characteristics of C.T.s
2. Ratio change due to tap change
3. Difference in lengths of pilot wires
4. Magnetizing current inrush
Frame Leakage Protection
This protection is nothing but the method of providing earth fault protection to the transformer. This
protection can be provided to the metal clad switchgear. The arrangement is shown in the Fig.

 The frame of the switch i.e. enclosure is

grounded. This is done through a primary of
current transformer in between.
 The concrete foundation of switchgear and the
other equipments are lightly insulated from the
ground. The resistance of these equipments with
earth is about 12 ohms.

 When there is an earth fault, then fault current leaks from the frame and passes through the earth
connection provided. Thus the primary of C.T. senses the current due to which current passes
through the sensitive earth fault relay. This operates the relay.
 Such a protection is provided only for small transformers. For the large transformers, the differential
protection is enough to sense and operate for the earth fault
Restricted earth fault protection Relays on Transformer:
 A simple overcurrent and earth fault relay does not provide good protection for a star connected
winding, particularly when the neutral point is earthed through an impedance. Restricted earth fault
protection, as shown in Figure provides better protection.
 This scheme is used for the winding of the transformer connected in star where the neutral point is
either solidly earthed or earthed through an impedance. The relay used is of high impedance type to
make the scheme stable for external faults.
 For delta connection or ungrounded star
winding of the transformer, residual
overcurrent relay as shown in Figure is
employed. The relay operates only for a
ground fault in the transformer.
 The differential protection of the transformer is
supplemented by restricted earth fault
protection in case of a transformer with its
neutral grounded through resistance.
Induction motor protection: Protection against electrical faults:
 Generally two basic protections viz short circuit protection and overload protection are provided for
each motor.
 The switchgear used for protection includes contactors with H.R.C fuse and thermal overload relays
along with circuit breakers.
 If the rating of the motor is upto 150 kW then contactors and fuses can be used while for motors
having rating beyond 150 kW, circuit breakers are used.
 The contactor is a kind of switch through which supply can be given to the motor when its coil is
energized. If the current to be interrupted is six times the rated current of the motor then contactors
can be used.
Abnormal Conditions and Failure in Case of Induction Motor:
The abnormal conditions and failure that may occur in case of induction motor:
 If the motor is heavily loaded beyond its capacity then it will be overload condition of motor in which
case motor draws heavy current from the supply and there will be simultaneous rise in temperature of
winding and deterioration of the insulation resulting in damage of winding. Normally thermal
overload relays, over current relays or miniature circuit breaker with built in trip coils may be used.
 It might be possible that the rotor is locked or starting lasts for longer duration or rotor does not move
because of excessive load (stalling) at start. In all these cases motor draws heavy current from the
supply and results in damage to the winding due to overheating as stated above. In this case thermal
relays or instantaneous overcurrent relays are used.
 If the supply conditions are abnormal such as loss of supply voltage, unbalanced supply voltage,
phase sequence reversal of supply voltage, over voltage, under voltage or under frequency then also
the performance of the motor is affected. With unbalanced supply voltage there will be excessive
heating while with undervoltage the motor draws more current for the same load. For undervoltage
protection, undervoltage relays are used.
 With correct phase sequence, the motor runs in one direction. With change in phase sequence of
supply it runs in other direction which is dangerous in some of the applications such as cranes, hoists
or elevators. In such cases phase reversal relay may be provided which will disconnect the supply to
the motor through the circuit breaker.
 Due to excessive temperature rise, the insulation may get damaged which may lead to stator earth fault
or stator phase to phase fault which are rare in nature. For low rating motors, HRC fuses provide
sufficient protection against these faults while for large motors, differential protection may be used.
 Due to blowing of fuse in any phase or open circuit in one of the three phases results in single phasing.
In such case motor continues to run and if it is loaded to its rated value then it will draw excessive
current which will damage the rotor and eventually the motor will be damaged due to excessive
overheating. Normally thermal overload relays are used against single phasing. Sometimes special
single phase preventer may be provided.
Summary of abnormal condition and protection circuit to be employed is given in the table.
S.No Abnormal condition Choice of protection circuit to be employed
Overload release, thermal overload relay, over current relays,
1 Mechanical overload
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) with built in trip coil.
Stalling or prolonged starting
2 Thermal relays, Instantaneous overcurrent relay.
of motor
3 Under voltage Under voltage release, under voltage relay.
4 Unbalanced voltage Negative phase sequence relays.
5 Reverse phase sequence Phase reversal relay.
Phase to phase fault or phase to HRC fuse, Instantaneous overcurrent relays. For large motors,
6
earth fault differential protection may be employed for economy.
Thermal overload relays, single phase preventer.
7 Single phasing
Protection Circuit for Induction Motor:
 The protection circuit along with its single line
diagram is shown in the Fig. The three phase
supply is given to the motor through various
elements such as fuse, switch, contactor and
thermal overload relay.
 The control circuit of contactor consists of
energizing coil, start and stop buttons. The start
(ON) push button is normally open green switch
while the stop (OFF) push button is normally
closed red switch.
 When the start button is pressed then the
conductor coil is energized as it gets supply
voltage. The coil attracts the plunger when excited
and the main contacts are closed along with the
auxiliary contact.
 Even if the ON push button is released, the
contactor coil remains energized as it gets supply
through auxiliary contacts. Thus motor starts
running.
 The OFF push button which is normally closed when passed cuts the supply of the contactor coil and
hence the main as well as auxiliary contacts are open so motor eventually stops. If supply voltage
fails, control coil is de-energized which opens the contactor and motor stops.
 During overload condition, the thermal overload relay operates. Thermal overload relay consists of
bimetallic strips. Because of bending of one or more bimetallic strip results in operation of common
lever which operates the trip contacts to de-energize the coil and disconnects the supply to the motor.
 The bimetallic strips are either heated directly by flow of current or with the help of special heater
coil through which motor current flows.
 For large motors, these relays are connected in secondary of current transformers. The bimetallic
strips can be of self setting type or hand resetting type in which mechanical reset is required as the
trip mechanism locks itself in operated condition.
 It should be observed that the rating of thermal relay should be such that it should not operate during
normal starting conditions. A setting range is provided for adjustment for various load conditions.
Protection against short circuit is provided with the help of HRC fuses.
Single Phase Preventer:
 If one of the supply line is disconnected due to
open circuit or improper contact in switch then
still the motor continues to run.
 The power is then supplied to the remaining
windings. The current in the other phases
increases to about times its normal value. This is
called single phasing which results in unbalanced
stator currents.
 The component which is present in this unbalance
current called negative sequence component
causes magnetic flux rotating in opposite direction
to the main flux.
 This results in double frequency current to induce
in the rotor cause its heating. Thus major damage
to motor may take place due to single phasing if
proper precaution is not taken.
 As the phase overcurrent relays react slowly, they can not give the instantaneous protection against
single phasing. A separate single phasing protection circuit is required in case of large induction motors
as even a small unbalance can cause damage to motor winding and rotor.
 As shown in the Figure, it consists of C.Ts connected in each phase. The output of control circuit is
fed to the level detector which sense the magnitude of unbalance. Depending on this output from the
control circuit the tripping command to the starter or the circuit breaker is given when negative
sequence current exceeds its preset limit.
Ground Fault Protection:

 The ground fault protection is achieved using earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB). When the fault
current or leakage current flows through earth return path then it form the earth fault. These faults are
relatively frequent and hence protection is required against these which is provided with the help of
earth leakage circuit breaker.
 Consider an example of a person whose finger sticks into the socket. Even though the metal enclosure
is securely earthened, the person will receive a sever shock. Under such case these must be certain
device that will cut the supply. This can be done with the help of ELCB which will typically trip in
around 25 ms if current exceeds its preset value. The schematic of ELCB is shown in Fig
 As shown in the Fig. ELCB consists of a small current transformer surrounding live and natural wire.
The secondary winding of current transformer is connected to relay circuit which can trip the circuit
breaker which is connected in the circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the current in line and neutral conductor is same so that net current (I L -IN)
flowing through the core is zero. Eventually there will not be any production of flux in the core and
no induced emf. So the breaker does not trip.
 If there is a fault due to leakage from live wire to earth or a person by mistake touching to the live
terminal then the net current through the core will no longer remain as zero but equal to IL -IN or If
which will set up flux and emf in C.T.
 As per the preset value the unbalance in current is detected by C.T. and relay coil is energized which
will give tripping signal for the circuit breaker. As C.T. operates with low value of current, the core
must be very permeable at low flux densities.
 This method to provide earth fault protection is called core balance type protection or zero sequence
current transformer (ZSCT) protection.
 In case of earth faults, to avoid burning of coils and stampings the motor must be disconnected as
quickly as possible from the supply.
The Fig shows ZSCT protection scheme. It is preferred for the systems with neutral earthed via
resistance.
Phase Fault Protection:
This protection is also called short circuit protection. At the time of such a fault, the current increases by
8 to 10 times the full load current of the motor. Attached armature type relay unit is connected in each
phase with a current setting of 4-5 times the full load current. This is because starting current can be 4-5
times full load current. Hence to operate the relay only under fault condition such a setting is necessary.
Such a protection is shown in the Figure.
The phase faults can cause burn out of coils and
stampings and hence motor should be disconnected as
quickly as possible when fault occurs. Fast over
current relays also are used to provide phase fault
protection. As mentioned above to avoid relay
functioning during starting, the short circuit protection
current setting must be just above the maximum
starting current of the motor
Phase Reversal Protection:
 The direction of induction motor depends on the direction of rotating magnetic field produced by the
stator windings. For a particular phase sequence RYB the motor rotates in a particular direction due to
corresponding direction of rotating magnetic field.
 But if any two lines are interchanged after repairs the phase sequence reverses such as YRB. Then the
direction of rotating magnetic field also reverses and induction motor starts rotating in opposite
direction.
 Such a change of direction is dangerous if the induction motor is used for cranes, lifts or in threading
mills etc. Thus to disconnect induction motor from supply if there is phase reversal, phase reversal
protection is provided.
 This protection is provided using motor driven disc working on electromagnetic principle. The
secondaries of two current transformers connected in two lines drive the motor to operate the disc.
 The arrangement in such that for a normal direction of motor, disc rotates in a particular direction
which keeps the auxiliary contacts closed. But if there phase reversal then the torque produced
reverses to rotate the disc in opposite direction. Due to this auxiliary contacts get opened.
 This inturn either operates the circuit breaker or de-energises starter coil to disconnect the motor from
the supply. Thus phase reversal protection for the induction motor is achieved. Now a days solid state
phase reversal relay sensing the phase reversal is used.