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CSC102: Discrete Structure

Lecture #: 3
Unit #: 1
Instructor:
MISHAL IQBAL

COMSATS University Islamabad

Vehari Campus
Topics 2

Proposition Logic
Compound Propositions
Applications of Propositional
Logic
Logic on 3

Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning,

and of all automated reasoning (Crucial for
mathematical reasoning)
It helps us to understand how to construct a valid
argument
Logic defines:
Syntax of statements
The meaning of statements
The rules of logical inference (manipulation)
Logic on 4

The rules of logic specify the meaning of

mathematical statements.
These rules are used to distinguish between valid
and invalid mathematical arguments.
For instance, these rules help us understand and
reason with statements such as:
 There exists an integer that is not the sum of two
squares”
 For every positive integer n, the sum of the positive
integers not exceeding n is n(n + 1)/2.
Logic on 5

It has practical applications:

 To the design of computing machines (computer
circuits)
 To the specification of systems
 To artificial intelligence
 To the construction of computer programs
 To the verification of the correctness of programs
 To programming languages
 To define a formal language for representing
knowledge and for making logical inferences and to
other areas of computer science
 Logic Overview
Logic (Propositional ) is a system based on
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propositions.
A proposition is a (declarative) statement that is
either true or false but not both.
We say that the truth value of a proposition is
either true (T) or false (F).
Examples: Islamabad is Capital of Pakistan.
(True)
– 5 + 2 = 8. (False)
It is raining today. (either
True or False)
 Logic
Propositional variables (or
Overview
statement
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variables), that is, variables that

Logic (Propositional ) is a system based on
represent
propositions, just as letters are used to denote
propositions.
numerical variables.
A proposition is a (declarative) statement that is
The conventional letters used for propositional
either true or false but not both.
variables are p, q, r, s, . . . .
We say that the truth value of a proposition is
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted
either true (T) or false (F).
by T, if it is a true proposition, and the truth value
Examples: Islamabad
of a proposition is Capital
is false, denotedof by
Pakistan.
F, if it is a
(True)
false proposition.
The area of logic that – 5deals
+ 2 =with
8. (False)
propositions is
called the propositional calculus
It is raining today. (either or
 Propositions Overview 8

Many mathematical statements are constructed

by combining one or more propositions.
New propositions, called compound
propositions, are formed from existing
(elementary) propositions using logical operators.

Example:
 Proposition A: It rains outside
 Proposition B: We will see a movie
A new (combined) proposition:
 If it rains outside then we will see a movie
 Propositions Operators 9

Logical connectives (operators):

 Negation ( ￢ )
 Conjunction (∧)
 Disjunction (∨)
 Exclusive OR (⊕)
 Implication or conditional (→)
 Bi-conditional (↔)
 Propositions (￢) 10

“Ahsan’s PC runs Linux”

Negation: “It is not case that Ahsan’s PC runs Linux”
“Aslam’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory”
Negation: “It is not case that Aslam’s smartphone has at
least 32GB of memory”
“Aslam’s smartphone does not has at least 32GB of
memory”
 Propositions (∧) 11

 Find the conjunction of the following propositions:

p: “Aslam’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk
space”
q: “The processor in Aslam’s PC runs faster than 1
GHz.”
 Conjunction of p and q:
p ∧ q, is the proposition “Aslam’s PC has more than
16 GB free hard disk space, and the processor in
Aslam’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.”
“Aslam’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk
space, and its processor runs faster than 1 GHz.”
 Propositions (∨) 12

Connective or (Inclusive way)

 Find the disjunction of the following propositions:
p: “Aslam’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk
space”
q: “The processor in Aslam’s PC runs faster than 1
GHz.”
 Disjunction of p and q:
p ∧ q, is the proposition “Aslam’s PC has more than
16 GB free hard disk space, or the processor in
Aslam’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.”
 Propositions (⊕) 13

Connective or (Exclusive way)

 Sometimes, we use connective or in an
exclusive sense.
 When the exclusive or is used to
connect the propositions p and q, the
proposition “p or q (but not both)” is
obtained.
 This proposition is true when p is true
and q is false, and when p is false and q
is true. It is false when both p and q are
 Propositions Statement 14

 Because conditional statements play

such an essential role in mathematical
reasoning, a variety of terminology is
 used
“if p, to express
then q” p
→“qq. if p”  “a sufficient
 “q whenever condition for q is
 “p implies q” p”
p”
 “q is necessary for
 “if p, q”  “q when p”
p”
 “p only if q”  “q follows from
 “a necessary
 “p is sufficient p”
condition for p is
 Propositions Statement 15

 Example:
“If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”
“If you get 100% on the final, then you will
Let an
get p be
A.”the statement “Maria learns discrete
mathematics” and q the statement “Maria will find a good
job.”
Express the statement p → q as a statement in English.
“If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she will find a
good job.”
“Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete
mathematics.”
“For Maria to get a good job, it is sufficient for her to learn
discrete mathematics.”
“Maria will find a good job unless she does not learn
 We can form some new conditional statements starting
Propositions Statement
with a conditional statement p → q.
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 In particular, there are three related conditional

statements that occur so often that they have special
names.
 Converse: The proposition q → p is called the
converse of p → q.
 Contrapositive:
The contrapositive of p → q is the proposition ￢
q → ￢ p.
OR
The proposition ￢ q → ￢ p is called the
contrapositive of p → q.

 Propositions Statement 17

Implication Converse Contrapositive Inverse

p q p→q p q q→p ￢p ￢q ￢q → ￢p ￢p ￢q ￢p → ￢q
T T T T T T F F T F F T
T F F T F T F T F F T T
F T T F T F T F T T F F
F F T F F T T T T T T T
 The contrapositive, ￢ q → ￢ p, of a conditional statement
p → q always has the same truth value as p → q.
 The contrapositive is false only when ￢ p is false and ￢
q is true, that is, only when p is true and q is false.
 Neither the converse, q → p, nor the inverse, ￢ p → ￢ q,
has the same truth value as p → q for all possible truth
values of p and q.
 Note that when p is true and q is false, the original
conditional statement is false, but the converse and the
 Propositions Statement 18

Implication Converse Contrapositive Inverse

p q p→q p q q→p ￢p ￢q ￢q → ￢p ￢p ￢q ￢p → ￢q
T T T T T T F F T F F T
T F F T F T F T F F T T
F T T F T F T F T T F F
F F T F F T T T T T T T

 When two compound propositions always have the

same truth value we call them equivalent.
 A conditional statement and its contrapositive are
equivalent.
 The converse and the inverse of a conditional statement
are also equivalent.
 Propositions
Example: Statement 19

 What are the contrapositive, the converse, and the

inverse of the conditional statement “The home team
wins whenever it is raining?”
Solution: One way to express p → q is “q whenever p” so
original conditional statement can be written as:
“If it is raining, then the home team wins.”
 Contrapositive: “If the home team does not win, then it
is not raining.”
 Converse: “If the home team wins, then it is raining.”
 Inverse: “If it is not raining, then the home team does
not win.”
Only the contrapositive is equivalent to the original
 Propositions Statement 20

 Note that the statement p ↔ q is true

when both the conditional statements
p → q and q → p are true and is false
otherwise.
 That is why we use the words “if and
only if” to express this logical
“p is necessary
connective
and sufficient
 There are some other common ways to for q”
express
“if p then q, and
p ↔ q: conversely”
 Note that p ↔ q has exactly the same “p iff q.”
 Propositions Statement 21

 Let p be the statement “You can take the flight,” and let
q be the statement “You buy a ticket.”
Solution: p ↔ q is the statement
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
 Propositions Table 22

 Construct the truth table of the compound proposition

(p ∨ ￢ q) → (p ∧ q).
 Propositions Operator 23

 We can construct compound propositions using

the negation operator and the logical operators
 The negation operator is applied before all
other logical operators.
 This means that ￢ p ∧ q is the conjunction of ￢
p and q, namely, ( ￢ p) ∧ q, not the negation of
the conjunction of p and q, namely ￢ (p ∧ q).
 The conjunction operator takes precedence
over the disjunction operator, so that p ∧ q ∨ r
means (p ∧ q) ∨ r rather than p ∧ (q ∨ r).
 We will use parentheses so that the order of
the disjunction and conjunction operators is
 Propositions Operator 24

 The conditional → and biconditional ↔

operators have lower precedence than the
conjunction ∧ and disjunction ∨ operators.
 Consequently, p ∨ q → r is the same as (p ∨
q) → r.
 Although the conditional → operator has
precedence over the biconditional ↔
operator
 We will use parentheses when the order of
the conditional operator and biconditional
operator is at issue.
 Compound
 Computers represent information usingBit
bits. A bit is a
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Propositions
symbol Operations
with two possible values, namely, 0 (zero) and 1
(one).
 1 represents T (true), 0 represents F (false).
 A variable is called a Boolean variable if its value is
either true or false.
 Consequently, a Boolean variable can be represented
using a bit.
 Computer bit operations correspond to the logical
connectives.
 By replacing true by a one and false by a zero in the truth
tables for the operators ∧, ∨, and ⊕ as follows:
 We will also use the notation OR, AND,
 Compound Logic and Bit 26

Propositions Operations
Example:
 Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of the
bit strings 01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 1101.
Solution:
 The bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of these
strings are obtained by taking the OR, AND, and XOR of
the corresponding bits, respectively
Proposition Logic Applications 27

 Translating English
 Logic Puzzles
Sentences
 System Specifications  Logic Circuits

 Boolean Searches

Basic logic gates

Combinatorial circuit
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