Computer Networks

Chapter 3
Data Communication

The process of transferring data from one location to another is called data
communication. In this process data is transmitted electronically from one place to
another. Data can be transferred by using different medium. The basic components
of data communication are:
• Message.
• Sender
• Receiver
• Medium/Communication Channel
• Encoder and Decoder.
Data Communication
• Message: The message is the data or instruction to be communicated. It
may consist of text, number, pictures, sound, video or any combination f
these.
• Sender: Sender is a device that sends message. It is also called source or
transmitter.
• Receiver: it is the device that receives the message. It is also called sink.
• Medium: it is the physical path that connects sender and receiver. It is used
to transmit data. It is also called communication channel.
• Encoder and Decoder: Encoder circuit basically converts the applied
information signal into a coded digital bit stream. Decoder performs reverse
operation and recovers the original information signal from the coded bits.
Signal

• The data is transmitted from one location to another location in the form of
electromagnetic ana light waves through communication medium.

• The electromagnetic and light waves are called signals.

Different forms of communication signals are:
• Digital signals
• Analog Signals
Digital Signals

• Digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in binary form.

• The digital signals are in the form of electric pulses of ON and OFF.

• These signals are in discrete form.

• Digital signals are faster and efficient.

• They also provide high transmission speed and high-quality voice transmission.
Analog Signals

• Analog signal is a continuous electrical signal in the form of wave.

• The wave is known as carrier wave.

• Telephone line is most commonly used medium for analog transmission of data.

• Light, sound, and microwave are also common example of analog signals.
Different types of Data

• Data can be represented in different ways. Different types of Data are:

• Text: Text data consists of words, sentences, paragraphs. Text is normally

stored as ASCII code.

• Numeric Data: Numeric data consists of numbers from 0-9.

• Image: This type of data includes chart, graphs, pictures and drawings.

• Audio & Video Data.

Encoding of Data

Computer works only with binary numbers. It stores all types of data in
the form binary digits. The data is converted to binary form before it is
stored inside the computer. The process of converting data into binary
form is called encoding. Data can be converted into binary form by
using different coding schemes.
Types of Coding Schemes

• BCD Code: BCD stands for binary coded decimal. It is a 4-bit code. It means that
each decimal digit will be represented by 4 binary digits. This method used to be
used in older computers.

• EBCDIC Code: EBCDIC stands for extended binary coded decimal interchange
code. It is an 8-bit code. Mainframe computers used this method. It can represent
256 characters.
Types of Coding Schemes

ASCII stands for American standard code for information interchange. It was
published in 1968 by ANSI (American National Standard Institute). It is the most
widely used coding scheme for personal computers. The 7-bit code can represent
128 characters. It is not enough to represent some graphical characters displayed on
computer screens. An 8-bit code can represent 256 characters. The extended 128
unique codes represent graphic symbols.

Unicode: Unicode is a 16-bit code. It can represent 65536 characters. Unicode has
started to replace ASCII code. It represent the characters of all languages in the
world.
Data transmission mode

• The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data
transmission mode.
• There are three types of data transmission modes:
1.Simplex mode
2.Half duplex mode
3.Full duplex mode
Simplex mode

• In simplex mode, data can flow only in one direction. It cannot be moved in both
directions.
• It operates in a manner similar to a one-way street. The direction of flow never
changes.
• A device with simplex mode can either send or receive data. It cannot perform
both changes. A device with simplex mode can either send or receive data. It
cannot perform both actions.

• An example is a traditional television broadcast. The signal is sent from the

transmitter to TV antenna. There is no return signal.
Half-Duplex Mode

• In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but not at the same time. It
is transmitted one-way at one time. A device with half-duplex mode can send or
receive data but not at the same time. That is why the speed of half-duplex mode
is slow.

• Internet surfing is an example of half-duplex communication. The user issues a

request for a web page. The web page is downloaded and displayed before the
user issues another request.
Full-Duplex Mode

• In full-duplex mode, data can travel in both directions simultaneously. Full duplex
mode is a faster way of data transmission as compared to half duplex.

• A telephone is a full-duplex communication is automobile traffic on a two-lane

road. The traffic can move in both directions at the same time.
Types of Data Transmission

There are two types of data transmission:

Parallel Transmission

• In parallel transmission, a group of bits of data flow at the same time

through separate communication lines.
• It is very fast data transmission.
• It is usually unidirectional, each bit is transmitted over a separate line.
Example: The internal transfer of data in a computer uses a parallel
mode. The data transmission between computer and printer is done
using parallel transmission.
Serial Transmission

• A method of transmission in which data is sent one bit at a time is

called serial transmission.
• The character bits are sent sequentially.
• Serial transmission is slower than parallel, as data is sent sequentially
one bit a time.
• Example: Telephone lines use this method of data transmission. Each
individual bit of information travels along its own communication
path.
Asynchronous Transmission

• In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted character by character or byte

by byte.
• There are irregular gaps between characters in this transmission.
• It is cheaper to implement, because data is not saved before it is sent.
• In asynchronous transmission, a special signal is sent by sender to the receiver
before sending the message.
• It is known as “Start Bit” . A start bit has a value of 0 it is called space state. The
value of “0” indicates that a character is about to be transferred. It alerts the
receiver and it gets ready to receive the character.
• If start bit has value of “1”, it indicates that line is idle. It is called mark state.
Synchronous Transmission

• In the synchronous mode, the saved data is transmitted block by block. Each block
consists of many characters.
• In this mode, data is saved before sending. A large amount of data can be
transmitted at a time.
• In synchronous transmission, a special device is known as “Synchronous Clock”
is required to schedule the e transmission of information. It is very expensive
device.
• Synchronous transmission is much faster than asynchronous because there is no
gap between characters.
• This is suited for remote communication between computer and related devices
like printer etc.
Bandwidth

• The amount of data that can be transferred through a communication

medium in a unit of time is called bandwidth.
• The bandwidth of digital signal is measured in bits per second or
bytes per second.
• The bandwidth of analog signals is measured in cycles/second or
Hertz.
Communication Media/ Channel

The path through which data is transmitted from one place to another is called
communication media or channel. There are different types of communication
media:

• Guided Media.
• Unguided Media.
Guided Media

• In guided media, communication devices are directly joined with each other by
using some physical media like wires. It is also called bounded media.
Some examples of bounded media are:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
Twisted Pair

• Twisted pair is one of the most commonly used communication media.

• A twisted pair cable consists of a pair of thin copper wires, these wires are
covered by insulating material.
• Theses pair of wires are twisted together to form a cable, the pair of wires is
twisted together to reduce noise.
• Noise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade communication.
• It is normally used in local telephone communication.
• Its speed is 9600 bits per second in a distance of 100 meter.
Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cable consists of a copper wire core covered by insulating material, the
insulated coper wire is covered by coper mesh.
• It protects the cable from electromagnetic waves.
• It is the same cable that is used for television.
• Coaxial cable contains 4 to 22 coaxial units called tubes.
• Coaxial cable is used for long-distance telephone lines and local area networks.
• It is more expensive than twisted pair.
Fiber Optics

• Fiber optic cable consists of a tubes of glass through which data is transmitted as a
pulses of light. Fiber optics is also known as light pulse media.
• A fiber is made up of a thin glass fiber, it is thinner than a human hair.
• Data transfer rate of fiber optics is very fast, there is no chance of data loss.
• An important characteristic of fiber optics is Refraction, refraction is the
characteristic of a material to either pass or reflect light.
• Its capacity is 26000 times more than twisted pair.
Unguided Media

• The unguided transmission media is one which does not use the physical
medium to transmit information from one computer to another. Unlike the guided
transmission media, the unguided transmission media utilize air as a transmission
media instead of wire or cable so it is also termed as ‘wireless transmission
media’.
Types of Unguided Transmission Media:
1.Microwave Transmission.
2.Communication satellite.
3.Mobile Communication.
Microwave

• In microwave transmission, data is transmitted through air or space instead of

cable or wires.
• The microwave is the electromagnetic waves with frequency ranging from ‘1 to
300 GHz’.
• The microwaves are unidirectional in nature and due to which it propagates in
line-of-sight mode.
• In line-of-sight propagation, the source transmitting antenna and the receiving
antenna needs to aligned to each other in such a way that they must be facing each
other which enables point-to-point transmission.
• A microwave station is also called relay station or booster.
• Both voice and data can be transmitted through microwave.
Communication Satellite

• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fiber optic systems.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
• Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
• It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Mobile Network

• Mobile communication is radio-based network that transmits data to

and from mobile computer. Computers can connect to the network via
wired ports or wireless connection.
Modem

Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that

allows a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the
Internet. It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire
to digital data (1s and 0s) that a computer can recognize. Similarly, it converts
digital data from a computer or other device into an analog signal that can be sent
over standard telephone lines.
Types of Modems

• External Modem: is an external device of computer. it attached to the system unit

as an external device through telephone line. It is connected to the telephone wall
jack by another cable. External modem is connected to computer using serial
cable to COM1 or COM2 port. External modem is expensive.
• Internal Modem: is a circuit board that is inserted into an expansion slot on the
motherboard. It can not be moved from one computer to another computer. It is
less expensive than external modem.
• Wireless Modem: transmits the data signals through air instead of cable. It is also
known as radio-frequency modem. It is designed to work with cellular technology
and d wireless local area network.
Computer Network

A Computer Network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems

that use common connection protocols for sharing various resources and files. You
can establish a computer network connection using either cable or wireless media.
Every network involves hardware and software that connects computers and tools.
Important Types of Computer Networks

• There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The

classification of network in computers can be done according to their size as well
as their purpose.

• The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks.

• It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of devices spread across

the world. Following are the popular types of Computer Network:
LAN(Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

LAN(Local Area Network)
PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.

• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.

• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.

• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.

• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.

• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.

• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

• It can be used in a college within a city.

• It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.

• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.

• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
Examples Of Wide Area Network

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.

• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network

• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch
of our office is in a different city, then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a
leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the
updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, WhatsApp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources
like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The
high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network

• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN
and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet
which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used.
Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect
from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves
the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is
difficult.
Different Components of LAN

In LAN, different components are used to connect computers together.

The important components are as follows:
• Communication Media
• Network interface Card
• Bridge
• Gateway
• Router
Different Components of LAN

• Communication Media: In a LAN, different components are interconnected

through a media called wires or cables. Some LANs use twisted pairs, Many
LANs use coaxial cable or fiber optic cables. These cables are expensive but faster
than twisted pairs.
• Network Interface Card(NIC): it is a device that used in local area network to
connect one computer with other computer. It is a circuit bard that is attached on a
internal expansion slots of mother board inside a system unit. It has a socket
where network able is connected. It is also called Ethernet card or LAN card.
• Bridge: A bridge is a device that is used where ‘Similar’ types of networks are to
be joined. Bridge is used to transfer data between two networks.
Different Components LAN

• Gateway: A gateway is a device that is used to connect different networks of

different types of protocols. It is also more intelligent device. It is faster than
router. It has ability to convert data according to the different protocols.

• Routers: A router is a device that is used to connect multiple networks of same or

different types of protocols. It is more intelligent device for WAN. It used routing
protocols to find best path for communications between two networks. By using
router, data can be sent in less time. Data becomes less weak, when traveling
through a router.
Types of Network Model

There are three types of network model:

• Client Server.
• Peer to Peer.
• Hybrid Model.
Types of Network Model

• Client Server: Client server consists of the requesting computers called client and
the computer that provides services is called Server. The server is a computer that
manages shared devices such as printer manages files, program and databases.

• Peer to Peer: the word peer means one who is equal in standing with another. It is
one in all microcomputers on the network communicate directly with one another
without relying on server. These are less expensive than client server and work
efficiently up to 25 computers.

• Hybrid Model: it is combination of client server and pee to peer model. This
model provides the advantages f both models.
Topology & its Types

Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other is

known as topology.
There are five types of topology in computer networks:
1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network
through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the
link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n
devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of the
network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized
access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O
ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.
Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called
hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication
between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub. If one device
wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the
hub transmit that data to the designated device.
Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be
connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with
the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without
hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central
system of star topology.
Bus Topology

• In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this
main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop
line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there
is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.
• Advantages: Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone
cable, Less cables required than Mesh and star topology.
• Disadvantages: Difficultly in fault detection, Not scalable as there is a limit of
how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.
Ring Topology

• In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it.

• There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the
either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology.

• If a device wants to send data to another device, then it sends the data in one
direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is
intended for other device, then repeater forwards this data until the intended
device receives it.
Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology

• Easy to install.
• Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links
are required to be changed.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due
to failure.
• Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.
Hybrid Topology

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example, a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid topology
• We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is
our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
• Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing
networks with different topologies.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
• Fault detection is difficult.
• Installation is difficult.
• Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.
Network Standards

• A set of rules and procedures followed by data communication in computer

network is called Standard.
Types of Protocols:
• De facto.
• De jure.
De Facto

• De facto means “actually existing” or “a Fact”.

• De facto protocols are those protocols that were developed without any formal
plan. These were developed in the early days of computer network.

• System Network Architecture(SNA) protocols is an example of De facto protocol.

The IBM developed it in 1974 for its mainframe e computers.
De jure

• De jure means “According to the Law”.

There are three major international organizations that regulates communication
network protocols
• CCITT
• ISO
• IEEE
Network Protocol

• A set of rules for exchanging information within a network is called network

protocol. These rules are implemented with the help of network software.

LAN Protocols

Ethernet Token Ring ARC Net

Ethernet

• It is the most popular and commonly used LAN protocol.

• It uses a high speed network cable and bus topology, it is very simple than other
protocols.
• All nodes in Ethernet use the same cable for sending and receiving data.
Therefore, this type of network must follow a set of rules to communicate the
computers with each other.
• Before transmitting the data, a node must find out if the cable is in use. If so, the
node must wait. When the cable is free the node must begin transmitting
immediately.
• This process is also known as CSMA/CD (Carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection)
Token Ring

• Token ring is another widely used LAN protocol.

• It is used in Ring topology.
• A computer in the network must get a token to transfer data to other computer on
the network.
• A token is a special electronic signal, it consists of series of bits.
ARC Net

• ARC Net stands for “Attached Resource Computer Network”.

• It is a LAN protocol and also a topology.
• It uses coaxial cable or twisted pair cable and the star topology with hub attached
to the network.
• These protocols were very slow, inexpensive, reliable and easy to setup. So, it
becomes popular.
• It also has the capability to use fiber optic cable.
DSL

• DSL stands for digital subscriber line.

• It is another digital line.
• In DSL, both ends of connections require the network cards and DSL modems for
data communication.
• DSL transmits data on existing standard copper telephone wiring.
ISDN

• ISDN stands for integrated services digital network.

• It is a set of standards used for digital transmission over telephone line.
• The ISDN uses the multiplexing techniques to carry three or more data signals at a
time through the telephone line.
• The data transmission speed of ISDN line is very fast.
• Its data transmission speed is up to 128 kbps.
TCP/IP

• TCP stands for “transmission control protocol/ Internet protocol”.

• TCP/IP is the protocol used by every computer on the internet.
• A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that defines how computer receive and
transmit data over the network.
• Every computer on the internet must have TCP/IP configured.
• TCP/IP ensures a reliable connection between the computers communicating over
the internet.
• TCP/IP software may be different for different computers, but it always presents
the same interface to the network. Different types of computers can share
information among them.
E-mail

• Email stands for Electronic mail. It is just like writing letter to someone with
whom we want to communicate.
• Internet provides us facility to write and send letters to the person living anywhere
in the world without any cost at an amazing speed.
• Normally an email takes 2 to 5 seconds to reach at the destination.
• We can also send documents and other things by attaching them with the email to
the recipient.
• Email has a unique address.
• Email uses SMTP(simple mail transfer protocol) for sending email messages.
Components of Email Address

• There are four parts for an email address which include the username, an @
symbol, domain name, a dot, and the domain. Let us know what these are.
• Username: This part is usually the name of the person to whom the mail is
sent. ([email protected])
• @ symbol: This separates the username and domain name. The symbol @
was invented by Ray Thomilson in 1971. ([email protected])
• Domain name: This refers to the mail server, the place where your email is
stored. ([email protected])
• A dot (.): This separates part of the address.
• The domain: Domain tells what type of web page you are using
(.com,.org,.edu, etc…). Eg: ([email protected])
World Wide Web (WWW)

• WWW stands for World wide Web. It is also called web.

• It provides the facility to publish information on the internet.
• It is a collection of documents or web pages stored on computers permanently
connected with internet around the world.
OSI Model

• The open systems interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model created by

the International Organization for Standardization which enables diverse
communication systems to communicate using standard protocols. In plain
English, the OSI provides a standard for different computer systems to be able to
communicate with each other.
• The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language for computer networking. It’s
based on the concept of splitting up a communication system into seven abstract
layers, each one stacked upon the last.
Application Layer

• This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user.
• Software applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the
application layer to initiate communications.
• But it should be made clear that client software applications are not part of the
application layer; rather the application layer is responsible for the protocols
and data manipulation that the software relies on to present meaningful data to
the user.
• Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).
Presentation Layer
• This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the
application layer; in other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for applications to
consume. The presentation layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and
compression of data.
• Two communicating devices communicating may be using different encoding methods, so
layer 6 is responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that the application layer
of the receiving device can understand.
• If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is responsible for
adding the encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the encryption on the
receiver's end so that it can present the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
• Finally, the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives from the
application layer before delivering it to layer 5. This helps improve the speed and
efficiency of communication by minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.
Session Layer

• This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the
two devices.
• The time between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the
session. The session layer ensures that the session stays open long enough to
transfer all the data being exchanged, and then promptly closes the session in
order to avoid wasting resources.
• The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints. For example,
if a 100 megabyte file is being transferred, the session layer could set a checkpoint
every 5 megabytes. In the case of a disconnect or a crash after 52 megabytes have
been transferred, the session could be resumed from the last checkpoint, meaning
only 50 more megabytes of data need to be transferred. Without the checkpoints,
the entire transfer would have to begin again from scratch.
Transport Layer

• Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices.

This includes taking data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks
called segments before sending it to layer 3. The transport layer on the receiving
device is responsible for reassembling the segments into data the session layer can
consume.
• The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control. Flow
control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender with a
fast connection doesn’t overwhelm a receiver with a slow connection. The
transport layer performs error control on the receiving end by ensuring that the
data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two
different networks.
• If the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network
layer is unnecessary.
• The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units,
called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the
receiving device.
• The network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to reach its
destination; this is known as routing.
Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link layer
facilitates data transfer between two devices on the SAME network.
• The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them into
smaller pieces called frames.
• Like the network layer, the data link layer is also responsible for flow control and
error control in intra-network communication (The transport layer only does flow
control and error control for inter-network communications).
Physical Layer

• This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as
the cables and switches.
• This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a
string of 1s and 0s.
• The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that
the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.