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COMPUTER COMMUNICATION
AND NETWORKS

MODULE - I
DATA
COMMUNICATIONS

✔ The term telecommunication means communication at

a distance.
✔ The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
✔ Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.
Five components of data communication

✔ Message - The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
✔ Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
✔ Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
✔ Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
✔ Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
■ Simplex
■ In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street.
■ Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive
■ Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices.
■ Half-Duplex
■ In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time.
■ When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are
both half-duplex systems
■ Full-Duplex
■ In full-duplex (also called duplex), both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously
NETWORKS - Physical
Structures
✔ A network is two or more devices connected
through links.
✔ A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another.
✔ For communication to occur, two devices must
be connected in some way to the same link at the
same time.
✔ There are two possible types of connections:
point-to-point and multipoint.
 Network Criteria

■ Performance
■ Depends on Network Elements
■ Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
■ Reliability
■ Failure rate of network components
■ Measured in terms of availability/robustness
■ Security
■ Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
■ Errors
■ Malicious users

1.7
■ Point-to-Point
■ A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices.
■ The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
■ Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or
cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
■ When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection
between the remote control and the television's control
system.
■ Multipoint
■ A multipoint connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link.
■ In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally.
■ If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection.
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Physical Topology
■The term physical topology refers to
the way in which a network is laid
out physically.
■The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and
linking devices to one another.
■There are four basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
Categories of topology
Mesh Topology
■In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
■The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
■In a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2
duplex-mode links.
A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
■ A mesh offers several advantages over other
network topologies.
■ First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating
the traffic problems that can occur when links must be
shared by multiple devices.
■ Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
■ Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a dedicated line,
only the intended recipient sees it.
■ Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and
fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid
links with suspected problems. This facility enables the
network manager to discover the precise location of the
fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
■ The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to
the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports required.
Star Topology
■In a star topology, each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
■The devices are not directly linked to
one another.
■Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between
devices.
■The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other
connected device.
A star topology connecting four stations
■ A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
topology.
■ In a star, each device needs only one link and one
I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
■ This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure.
■ Far less cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
■ Other advantages include robustness. If one link
fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active.
■ One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
Bus Topology
■ A bus topology is multipoint.
■ One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
■ Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop
lines and taps.
■ A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable.
■ A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact with the metallic core.
A bus topology connecting three stations
■ As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy
is transformed into heat.
■ Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther.
■ For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus
can support and on the distance between those taps.
■ Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,
then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths.
■ Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault
isolation.
■ In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on the same side of
the problem.
Ring Topology
■ In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
■ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
■ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
■ When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along.
■ A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors.
■ To add or delete a device requires changing only
two connections.
A ring topology connecting six stations
■However, unidirectional traffic can be
a disadvantage.
■In a simple ring, a break in the ring
can disable the entire network.
■This weakness can be solved by
using a dual ring or a switch capable
of closing off the break.
Hybrid Topology
■A network can be hybrid.
■A hybrid topology is a type of
network topology that uses two or
more other network topologies,
including bus topology, mesh
topology, ring topology, star
topology, and tree topology.
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Categories of Networks
■Local Area Network
■A local area network (LAN) is usually
privately owned and links the devices in a
single
office, building, or campus.
■Depending on the needs of an
organization
and the type of technology used, a LAN
can be as simple as two PCs and a printer
in
someone's home office; or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio
and
Wide Area Network
■ A wide area network (WAN) provides long-
distance transmission of data, image, audio, and
video information over large geographic areas
that may comprise a country, a continent, or even
the whole world.
■ A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that
connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line
that connects a home computer to the Internet.
Metropolitan Area Networks
■A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a
network with a size between a LAN and a
WAN.
■It normally covers the area inside a town
or a city.
■It is designed for customers who need a
high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet, and have endpoints spread over
a city or part of city.
■A good example of a MAN is the part of the
telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the
customer.
PROTOCOLS
■ A protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communications.
■ A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
■ The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Elements of a Protocol

■ Syntax
■ Structure or format of the data
■ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
■ Semantics
■ Interprets the meaning of the bits
■ Knows which fields define what action
■ Timing
■ When data should be sent and what
■ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is
being received.

1.30
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.31
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.32
The OSI Model
■An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model.
■An open system is a set of protocol
that allows any two different systems
to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture (H/W and
S/W). ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
The OSI Model
■The OSI model is a layered framework
for the design of network systems
that allows for communication
between all types of computer
systems.
■It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines
a part of the process of moving
information across a network.
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of

each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.37
Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.39
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
2.47
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do

not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.
• When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
The Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite
Applicatio
Source: The TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan
n
Presentatio FTP HTTP DNS NFS …
n
Sessio
n
Transpo TCP UDP
rt
ICMP IGMP

Networ IP
k ARP RARP

Data link

Physical

TCP/IP and OSI model

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol
made up of interactive modules,
each of which provides a specific
functionality.
• The layers of the TCP/IP protocol
suite contain relatively independent
protocols.
• The term hierarchical means that
each upper-level protocol is
supported by one or more lower-
level protocols.
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
■Physical and Data Link
Layers
■No specific protocol is defined at
this layer, rather, TCP/IP model
supports all the standard and
proprietary protocols.
■For instance, a network in a
TCP/IP internetwork can be a
local-area network or a wide-area
network.
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

■Network layer (internetwork

layer)
■TCP/IP at this layer supports the
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
■There are also some other
protocols that support data
movement in this layer.
Including: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.
Protocols at The Network Layer

■Internetworking Protocol (IP)

⮚ Most important protocol of the TCP/IP
network stack!
⮚ Implements internetworking.
⮚ IP is an unreliable and connectionless
protocol- a best-effort delivery.
⮚ It is host-to-host protocol.
Protocols at The Network Layer

■Address Resolution Protocol

(ARP)
⮚ It is used to find the physical address
(NIC) of the node after its Network
address is known.

■Reverse Address Resolution

Protocol (RARP)
⮚ It is used to find the Internet address
of the node after its physical address
Protocols at The Network Layer

■Internet Control Message Protocol

(ICMP)
⮚ It is used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagrams
( packets) problem back to the sender.
■Internet Group Message Protocol
(IGMP)
⮚ It is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of messages to a group of
recipients.
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

■Transport Layer
■In this layer, the protocol is
responsible for delivery of message
from a process to another process.
Protocols at The Transport Layer
■User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
⮚ It adds port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information
to the data from the upper layer.

■Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP)
⮚ It is reliable and connection-oriented.
Protocols at The Transport Layer
■Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (STCP)
⮚ It supports the newer application
e.g. voice over the Internet.
⮚ It combine best features of UDP and
TCP.
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

■Application Layer
■The application layer in TCP/IP is
equivalent to the combined
session, presentation, and
application.