2.

Basic Principles in Open Channel Flow

Water movement is the key process in open channel flow

The three basic equations to describe water movement
are the continuity, the energy and the momentum
equations derived from the three fundamental laws of
physics
1) Conservation of mass
2) Conservation of energy
3) Conservation of momentum
The conservation of mass says that mass can neither be
created nor destroyed.
The conservation of energy says that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but may be transformed from one
form to another.
 Con’t…
The law of conservation of momentum says that a moving
body cannot gain or lose momentum unless acted upon by
an external force, which is a statement of Newton's second
law of motion.
Flow in an open channel is, in fact, three-dimensional and
the flow properties like the velocity and the pressure vary
in the longitudinal, lateral and vertical directions
Since the variations of the flow parameters in the lateral
and vertical directions are small compared to those in the
longitudinal direction, a majority of open channel flow
problems are analyzed by considering that the flow is one-
dimensional, i.e. the variations of the flow properties only in
the longitudinal direction are taken into consideration.
 Con’t…
This analysis gives the cross-sectional mean values of the
flow properties, which do not vary within the cross-section,
but vary from section to section.
 2.1. CONTINUITY EQUATION
The principle of conservation of mass implies that during a
time interval the mass of water entering the control volume
minus the mass of water leaving the control volume equals
the change of mass within the control volume.
If the flow is steady, there cannot be any change of mass
within the control volume and the mass entering is equal to
the mass leaving.

Fig. 1
Therefore, if there is no lateral addition or withdrawal of
water (Fig.2.1a), the mass flow rate (mass per unit time)
passing various flow sections must be the same, i.e.
Where,

Since Q = AU and water is practically incompressible

 Con’t…
Where A is the cross-sectional area and U is the mean
velocity of flow
Equation (2.2) is the usual form of the continuity equation
for steady one-dimensional open channel flow of an
incompressible fluid without lateral inflow or outflow
It indicates that in steady flow not only but also , i.e. the
discharge in the channel is constant
If there is a lateral addition or withdrawal of water at the
rate of per unit length (Fig.2.1b), flow is spatially varied
and the discharge at section 2 at a distance L from section
1 where the discharge is Q1 is given by

Where the +sign is to be used for inflow and the -sign is to

be used for outflow.
 2.2. Energy principle

Referring to the figure shown, the total energy of a flowing

liquid per unit weight is given by,
V2
Total Energy Z  y 
2g

Where:
Z = height of the bottom
of channel above datum,
y = depth of liquid, T.E.L

V = mean velocity of flow.

Water Surface

channel bed

Fig. 2.2
 Con’t…
If the channel bed is taken as the datum (as shown), then
the total energy per unit weight will be.

This energy is known as specific energy, Es.

Specific energy of a flowing liquid in a channel is defined as energy per unit
weight of the liquid measured from the channel bed as datum
 Con’t…
The specific energy of a flowing liquid can be re-written in
the form:
T.E.L

Water Surface
D

channel bed

Fig. 2.3
 2.2.1. Energy and depth relationship
Specific Energy Curve (rectangular channel)
It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of
specific energy (Es ) with depth of flow y
It can be obtained as follows:
Let us consider a rectangular channel in which a constant
discharge is taking place.

But

V2 Q2
Or Especificy
2g
, Es  y 
2 g A2
 Con’t…
The graph between specific energy (x-axis) and depth (y-
axis) may plotted.

V2
2g
E

Fig. 2.3

G
 Con’t…
Referring to the diagram above, the following features can
be observed:
The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical
depth, yc.
It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the
specific energy is minimum, Emin, i.e.; Emin at yc .
The flow that corresponds to this point is called critical
flow (Fr = 1)
For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two
corresponding depths
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other
is smaller than the critical depth
For example ; Es1 at y1 and y2
 Con’t…
These two depths for a given specific energy are called
the alternate depths.
If the flow depth y > yc , the flow is said to be sub-critical
(Fr < 1).
 In this case Es increases as y increases.
If the flow depth y < yc , the flow is said to be super-critical
(Fr > 1)
 In this case Es increases as y increases.
 Con’t…

V
Fr  T
g Dh
Area of Flow (Wetted Area) A
Dh  
Water Surface Width T

Q 2T
2
Fr  3
Ag
T

Flow Fr
Sub-critical 1 > Fr
Critical 1 = Fr
Supercritical 1 < Fr
 Example

The specific energy for 5m wide rectangular channel is 4m. The

discharge of water through the columned is 19cumecs. Determine the
alternate depths of flow.
 2.2.2. Channel transition
The concepts of specific energy and critical energy are
useful in the analysis of transition problems
Transitions in rectangular channels are presented here.
The principles are equally applicable to channels of any
shape and other types of transitions
1) Channel with a Hump
2) Transition with a Change in Width
3) General Transition
1. Channel with a Hump
a)Subcritical Flow
Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel
of width B carrying discharge Q at depth y1.
 Con’t…
Let the flow be subcritical. At a section 2, smooth hump of
height ∆Z is built on the floor.
Since there are no energy losses between sections 1 and
2, construction of a hump causes the specific energy at
section to decrease by ∆z. Thus the specific energies at
sections 1 and 2 are,
 Con’t…
The flow is subcritical, the water surface will drop due to a
decrease in the specific energy.
In Figure below the water surface which was at P at
section 1 will come down to point R at section 2
The depth y2 will be given by
Con’t…
Con’t…
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 Example
A rectangular channel has a width of 2.0 m and carries a
discharge of 4.80m3/sec with a depth of 1.60 m. At a certain
cross-section a small, smooth hump with a flat top and a
height 0.10 m is proposed to be built. Calculate the likely
change in the water surface. Neglect the energy loss.
 Solution
Let the suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and downstream
sections respectively
The upstream flow is subcritical and the hump will cause a drop in
the water surface elevation.
The specific energy at section 1 is,
 The minimum specific energy at section 2 is Ec2 = 1.26 m < E2=
1.615 m. Hence y2> yc and the upstream depth y1will remain
unchanged.
 The depth y2 is calculated by solving the specific energy equation,
Class Work
Con’t…
 Transition with a Change in Width
Subcritical Flow in a Width Constriction
Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of width B, carrying
a discharge Q at a depth y1, as in Fig. below
 Con’t…
At a section 2 channel width has been constricted to B2 by a
smooth transition.
Since there are no losses involved and since the bed elevations
at sections 1 and 2 are the same, the specific energy at section 1
is equal to the specific energy at section 2.
Since B2<B1.q2>q1
In the specific energy diagram drawn with the discharge
intensity, point P on the curve q1 corresponds to depth y1 and
specific energy E1
Since at section 2, E2= E1 and q = q2, point P will move
vertically downward to point R on the curve q2 to reach the
depth y2.
 Con’t…

Thus, in subcritical flow the depth is y2 < y1. If B2 is made

smaller, then q2 will increase and y2 will decrease.

The limit of the contracted width B2 = B2min is reached when

corresponding to E1, the discharge intensity q2 = q2max, i.e. the
maximum discharge intensity for a given specific energy (critical
flow condition) will prevail.
Con’t…
Con’t…
Con’t…
Supercritical Flow in a Width Constriction

• If the upstream depth y1is in the supercritical flow regime, a

reduction of the flow width and hence an increase in the
discharge intensity cause a rise in depth y2. In Fig, below
point P` corresponds to y1and point R` to y2.
 Con’t
As the width B2is decreased, R` moves up till it becomes critical
at B2= B2min.

Any further reduction in B2causes the upstream depth to decrease

to y1` so that E1rises to E1`.

At section2, critical depth yc` corresponding to the new specific

energy E1` will prevail.

The variation of y1, y2and E with B2/B1in supercritical flow

regime is indicated in Fi
 Example
A rectangular channel is 3.50 m wide conveys a discharge of 15.0
m3/sec at a depth of 2.0 m. It is proposed to reduce the width of
the channel at a hydraulic structure. Assuming the transition to
be horizontal and the flow to be frictionless determine the water
surface elevations upstream and downstream of the constriction
when the constricted width is

a) 2.50m

b) 2.20m.
Solution:
Let suffixes 1 and 2 denote sections upstream and downstream of
the transition respectively.
 General Transition
A transition in general form may have a change of channel
shape, provision of a hump or a depression, contraction or
expansion of channel width, in any combination
Many complicated transition situations can be analyzed by
using the principles of specific energy and critical depth.
Hydraulic Jump
If the flow at the upstream of a cross section is subcritical
(y1<ycr) but supercritical (y2>ycr) at the downstream of that
cross section, the transition from subcritical flow to the
supercritical flow will be abrupt with a jump called Hydraulic
Jump.
In the mathematical derivation of hydraulic jump, the
following assumptions are made,
 Con’t…
A. Rectangular channel with horizontal bottom slope,
B. Before and after the hydraulic jump, velocity distributions are
uniform and the pressure distribution over the cross sections
are hydrostatic
C. Friction losses are neglected.
 Con’t…
Momentum equation will be applied to the control volume
taken at the hydraulic jump section for a unit width
perpendicular to the control volume,
Con’t…
Con’t…
Con’t…
 Hydraulic Jump as an Energy Dissipater

If we write the difference of the specific energies before and

after the hydraulic jump,
Con’t…
Con’t…
Con’t…
 Con’t…

Some empirical equations were given to calculate the length of

hydraulic as,
 Example

If the Froude number at the drop of a hydraulic jump pool is 6

and the water depth is 0.50m, find out the length of the
hydraulic jump.

Calculate the power dissipated with the hydraulic jump if the

discharge on the spillway is 1600 m3/sec.
 Solution
Using the equation of the ratio of water depths,
Con’t…
 2.3. Moment principle

The momentum equation is based on Newton's second

law of motion which states that the algebraic sum of all the
external forces acting on a fluid mass in any particular direction is equal
to the time rate of change of momentum in that direction.

Conservation of momentum is a vector quantity.

Let us consider the control volume bounded by sections 1

and 2 (Fig. 2.5). The various forces acting on the control
volume in the longitudinal direction are:
 Con’t…
1. The resultant hydrostatic pressure forces Fp1 and Fp2 at the two end sections.
2. The force due to gravity, W sineθ, which the component of the weight of water in the
longitudinal direction, and
3. The external frictional force Fr due to friction acting on the surface of contact between water
and the channel.

Fig. 2.5. Definition sketch for the momentum equation

 Con’t…

The momentum of flow passing a channel section per unit

time based on the mean velocity U and corrected for the
non-uniform distribution of where ẞ is the momentum
coefficient. Then, applying the Newton's second law of
motion, we can write

which is the momentum equation for one-dimensional steady

flow for the flow situation shown in fig.2.5

Note that the terms in the momentum equation have the

units of force, i.e. Newton or kgm/s2
 Con’t…
If any other external force is present, it has to be included
in the momentum equation
The momentum equation is a particularly useful tool in
analyzing rapidly varied expanding flow like a hydraulic
jump where the energy losses are significant
The momentum equation is very useful in estimating the
forces on different hydraulic structures (e.g. force on a
sluice gate).

Fig. Force on a sluice gate

Fig.Hydraulic jump
 Example
Derive the expression for the normal force when a jet of
water strikes a stationary flat plate
 Solution

When a jet of water with a velocity V1 strikes a stationary

flat plate normally, the force on the plate is equal to the
rate of change of momentum of the jet.

The jet leaves the plate tangentially so that all its

momentum in a direction normal to the plate is destroyed.
Hence, the normal force on the plate is

where A is the cross-sectional area of the jet.

 Con’t…
For steady one-dimensional open channel flow we have
three basic equations that can be used to compute three
unknown quantities.
However, in many flow problems, usually it is required to
compute two unknown quantities and we need only two
equations.
For example, it may be required to compute flow depth h
and flow velocity U at a downstream section in a channel
when the flow conditions at an upstream section are known
The equation of continuity is invariably used as it is the
simplest of the three equations. Then, the choice remains
whether we will use the energy or the momentam equation.
 Con’t…
The energy equation contains a term hL, of internal energy
losses. So this equation can be used initially only when this
energy loss term hL is small and negligible
On the other hand, the momentum equation contains an
external friction force Ff
So this equation can be used initially only when Ff small
and negligible and if any other external force is not present
As an example, let us consider the flow under a sluice
gate
Flow under sluice gate is an example of converging flow in
which energy losses between sections 1 and 2 are usually
small and negligible.
 Con’t…

The flow depth h2 and the flow velocity U2 at section 2

can be determined from the known flow conditions at
section 1 and using the continuity and energy equations.
Initially the momentum equation cannot be used for this
situation because of the force on the sluice gate that is
unknown and not negligible, although the external friction
force F1 is small and negligible. However, once h2 and U2
are determined, the momentum equation can be used to
compute the force on the sluice gate.
 Con’t…

For the hydraulic jump downstream of the sluice gate, the

energy equation cannot be initially used because of the
significant energy loss hL involved in the jump

However, the momentum equation can be used without difficulty

since the jump takes place in a short distance and the friction
force Fr is small and negligible and there is no other external
force

Therefore, the continuity and momentum equations are used to

compute the flow depth, h3 and the flow velocity U1

The energy equation can then be used to compute the energy

loss hL
 Con’t…

For steady uniform and gradually varied flows, the energy

and the momentum equations give similar results and we
can use either of these two equations.

However, the energy equation is preferred because it is

easy to understand and use than the momentum equation,
as energy is a scalar quantity and momentum is a vector
quantity.
 Example

Figure below shows a sharp crested weir in a

rectangular channel. If the discharge per unit width of
the weir is 0.4m2/s estimate the energy loss due to the
weir and force on the weir plate for the submerged
flow condition as shown.
 Solution
Let the force exerted by the weir plate on water is F. Then,
assuming unit width
Con’t…
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 Example

A sluice across channel 5m wide dischges a stream lm deep.

What is the flow rate when the depth upstream of the sluice is
6m? On the downstream side concrete blocks have been placed
to create conditions for hydraulic jump to occur. Calculate the
force on the blocks, if the downstream depth is 3m.
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Solution

Fig. Pressure diagram

Solution
 e E n d
T h