Chapter three

The System Documentation

Techniques and Development Process
Objectives of the chapter:
• Describe system development and documentation techniques

• Understand the system development processes

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 The System Documentation
Techniques

• What is documentation?

• Why documentation is important?

• What are some documentation technique?

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 System Documentation Tools and
Techniques
• Documentation: explain how a system works, through:
• narratives,
• flowcharts,
• diagrams, and other written material
• This covers: the who, what, when, where, why, and how of
• data entry, processing, storage, information output,
and systems controls

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• Why documentation is important?
• To understand how the system works.

• To evaluate internal control systems

• To identify strengths and weaknesses and recommend
improvements.
• The greatest amount of skill is needed to prepare
documentation.

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• System Documentation Tools and Techniques
• The three common systems documentation tools:
• Data flow diagrams (DFD)
• Flowcharts
• Business process diagrams.

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a. Data Flow Diagram (DFD): graphically describes:
data source, graphically describes the
the flow of data, flow of data within an
organization.
transformation processes,
data storage, and
data destinations with in the organization.

• Uses symbols to represent the entities, processes, data flows, and data
stores that pertain to a system.

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b. Flow charts is a pictorial, analytical technique used to describe some
aspect of an information system in a clear, concise, and logical manner.
• Record how business processes are performed and
• how documents flow through the organization

• Flowcharts use a standard set of symbols to describe pictorially the

transaction processing and the flow of data through a system.

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• Flowcharting symbols are divided into four categories:

1. Input/output symbols show input to or output from a system.

2. Processing symbols show data processing, either electronically or by hand.

3. Storage symbols show where data is stored.

4. Flow and miscellaneous symbols indicate the flow of data, where flowcharts
begin or end, where decisions are made, and how to add explanatory notes to flowcharts.

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b. TYPES OF FLOWCHARTS
1. Document flowchart: shows the flow of documents and information between
departments or areas of responsibility
• internal control flowchart
• insufficient segregation of duties, unnecessary complexity in document flows
2. System flowchart: shows the relationship among the input, processing, and
output in an information system

3. Program flowchart: shows the sequence of logical operations a computer

performs as it executes a program.
• describes the specific logic used to perform a process on a system flowchart.

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• Documentation tools are mainly:
• Data flow diagram (DFD)
• Flowchart
• Business Process diagrams

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 Phases of AIS System Development

Companies usually change their systems for one of the following reasons:
• Changes in user or business needs.
• Increased competition,
• business growth or consolidation,
• new regulations, or
• changes in regional and global relationships can alter an organization’s structure
and purpose.
• Technological changes.
• As technology advances and becomes less costly, and
• organization can make use of the new capabilities or existing ones that were
previously too expensive.

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• Improved business processes.
• Many companies have inefficient business processes that require updating.

• Competitive advantage.
• Increased quality, quantity, and speed of information
• can result in an improved product or service and may help lower costs.

• Productivity gains.
• Computers automate clerical and repetitive tasks and significantly decrease the
performance time of other tasks.

• Growth.
• Companies outgrow their systems and must either upgrade or replace them entirely.

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• There are reasons for changing system

• Who are going to involve in system development

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 Participants in System Development

• Systems professionals are systems analysts, systems designers, and

programmers.

• End users are those for whom the system is built.

• managers, operations personnel, accountants, and internal auditors

• Stakeholders are individuals either within or outside the organization who

have an interest in the system but not end users.
• External auditors, and the internal steering committee that oversees systems
development.
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 Phases of AIS System Development

Planning Systems Development

• Several activities must be performed at various times throughout the SDLC

• Two techniques for scheduling and monitoring systems development activities

are:
• Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) and

• The Gantt chart.

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1. Program evaluation and review technique (PERT)

• A way to plan, develop, coordinate, control, and schedule systems

development activities;
• all activities, and precedent and subsequent relationships among activities, are
identified and shown on a PERT diagram.

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2. Gantt chart. is a bar chart with project activities on the left-hand
side and units of time across the top.

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The Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)

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1. System Analysis: When a new or improved system is needed, a written request for
systems development is prepared.
• the current system’s problems,
• the reasons for the change,
• and the proposed system’s goals and objectives
• its anticipated benefits and cost
•The analysis phase has five steps discussed below.
a. Initial investigation: The person conducting an initial investigation must gain a clear

picture of the problem or need. screen projects, proposal to conduct systems

analysis
b. Systems survey The analyst often begins the analysis by determining what elements of the
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current system should be preserved as part of the new system.
Fact Gathering Techniques
• Observation: it involves passively watching the physical procedures of the system
• Task participation: is an extension of observation, whereby the analyst
takes an active role in performing the user’s work.

• Personal interviews: is a method of extracting facts about the current

system and user perceptions about the requirements for the new system.

• Reviewing key documents: The organization’s documents are another

source of facts about the system being surveyed.

The systems survey culminates with a systems survey report

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c. Feasibility study
Technological feasibility Can the planned system be developed and implemented using
existing technology?

Operational feasibility Does the organization have access to people who can design,
implement, and operate the proposed system?

Legal feasibility Does the system comply with all applicable federal and state laws?

Scheduling feasibility Can the system be developed and implemented in the time
allotted?

Economic feasibility. Will system benefits justify the time, money, and other resources
required to implement it?
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d. Information Needs and Systems Requirements
• Once a project is deemed to be feasible, the company identifies the information
needs of AIS users and documents systems requirements.
e. Systems Analysis Report
• Systems analysis is concluded by preparing a system analysis report, to
summarize and document the analysis activities.
• The report shows:
Systems designers
• the new system’s goals and objectives,
• the scope of the project and the new system
• The user’s processing requirements and information needs
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2. Conceptual Systems Design
• Developer creates a general framework for implementing user requirements
and solving problems identified in the analysis phase.
a. Evaluate Design Alternatives
The design team should identify a variety of design alternatives and evaluate each
with respect to:
• how well it meets organizational and system objectives
• how well it meets user needs
• whether it is economically feasible, and its advantages and disadvantages.
• The steering committee evaluates the alternatives and selects the one that best meets the
organization’s needs.
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b. Prepare Design Specifications

• Once a design alternative has been selected, the project team develops the
conceptual design specifications for the following elements:

i. Output. Because the system is designed to meet users’ information needs,

output specifications must be prepared first.
ii. Data Storage: Development decisions include
• which data elements must be stored to produce the report,
• what type of file or database to use, and
• which field size is appropriate for the data items.
iii. Input: Design considerations for which data to enter, location and amount,
and where, when, and how to collect data
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iv. Processing procedures and operations. Design considerations
include
• how to process the input and stored data in order to produce the report,
• the sequence in which the processes must be performed.
c. Prepare the Conceptual Systems Design Report
The purpose of this report is to:
• Guide physical systems design activities,
• Communicate how management and user information needs will be
met, and
• Help the steering committee assess system feasibility.
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3. Physical Systems Design
Company determines how the conceptual AIS design is to be
implemented.
• It translates the broad, user-oriented AIS requirements of conceptual
design into detailed specifications
• that are used to code and test the computer programs.

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a. Output Design
Its objective is to determine the nature, format, content, and
timing of printed reports, documents, and screen displays.

b. File and Database Design: It is important that the various

divisions or departments of a company store data in compatible
formats.

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c. Input Design When evaluating input design, the design team
must identify the different types of data input and optimal methods.

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d. Program design
• Program development is one of the most time-consuming activities in the
entire SDLC.
• Programs should be subdivided into small, well-defined modules to
reduce complexity and enhance reliability and modifiability.
Following are eight steps for developing software.
i. Determine user needs. Systems analysts consult with users and draw up
agreement about software requirements.
ii. Develop a plan. A development plan is produced and documented.
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iii. Write program instructions (code). The overall program
approach and major processing tasks are identified.
iv. Test the program. Debugging is the process of discovering and
eliminating program errors.
v. Document the program. Documentation explains how programs
work and is used to help correct and resolve errors.
vi. Train program users. Program documentation is often used to
train users.
vii. Install the system. All system components, including the
programs, are combined and the company begins to use the
system.
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viii Use and modify the system. Factors that require existing programs
to be revised, referred to as program maintenance,
• include requests for new or revised reports;
• changes in input, file content, or values such as tax rates;
• error detection; and conversion to new hardware.

e. Procedures design: Everyone who interacts with the newly designed

AIS should follow procedures that answer the who, what, when, where,
and how questions related to all AIS activities.
f. Controls design: Controls must be built into an AIS to ensure its
effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy.

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4. Systems Implementation and Conversion
i. Implementation
• Systems implementation is the process of installing hardware and
software and getting the AIS up and running.
• It consists: developing a plan,
• developing and testing software,
• preparing the site,
• installing and testing hardware,
• selecting and training personnel,
• developing documentation, and
• testing the system.
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a. Implementation planning: It consists of implementation tasks, expected
completion dates, cost estimates, and the person or persons responsible for
each task.
b. Site preparation: A PC, or other computer. Security measures, such as
fire protection and an emergency power supply, also may be necessary.

c. Select and train personnel: Employees can be hired from outside

the company or transferred internally.

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d. Complete documentation
• Three types of documentation must be prepared for new systems:
i. Development documentation describes the new AIS.
• It includes a system description; copies of output, input, and database layouts; program
flowcharts; test results; and user acceptance forms.

ii. Operations documentation includes operating schedules; files and databases

accessed; and equipment, security, and file retention requirements.
iii.User documentation teaches users to operate the AIS.
• It includes a procedures manual and training materials.

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e. Test the system:
• Documents and reports, user input, operating and control procedures,
processing procedures, and computer programs should all be given a trial
run in realistic circumstances.
common forms of testing:
i. Walk-throughs are step-by-step reviews of procedures or program
logic.
• The development team and system users attend walk-throughs early in
system design.
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ii. Processing of test transactions determines if a program operates as
designed.
iii. Acceptance tests use copies of real transaction and file records rather
than hypothetical ones.

Systems Conversion

Conversion is the process of changing from the old AIS to the new.

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•Four conversion approaches are used to change from an old to a new system:
a. Direct conversion: immediately terminates the old AIS when the new one
is introduced.
• It is appropriate when the old AIS has no value or
• the new one is so different that comparisons between the two are meaningless.
b. Parallel conversion: operates the old and new systems simultaneously for a
period of time.
• After the new system proves itself, a company could discontinue the old system.

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c. Phase-in conversion: gradually replaces elements of the old AIS with
the new one.

d. Pilot conversion: implements a system in just one part of the

organization, such as a branch location.

5. Operation and Maintenance

A post-implementation review should be conducted on a newly
installed AIS to ensure it meets its planned objectives.

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 AIS Development Strategies

A. Purchase Software
Written by software development companies, canned software is sold on the open
market to a broad range of users with similar requirements.

B. Developing Software In House

C. Outsourcing the System: It is hiring an outside company to handle all
or part of an organization’s data processing activities.

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