Nervous system parts

1. Somatic nervous system (Voluntary)

2. Autonomic nervous system
(Involuntary)
1. Somatic Nervous System
● The somatic nervous system consists of somatic motor neurons that
innervate the skeletal muscles of the body.
● When a somatic motor neuron stimulates a skeletal muscle, it
contracts; the effect is always excitation.
● If somatic motor neurons cease to stimulate a skeletal muscle, the
result is a paralyzed, limp muscle that has no muscle tone.
Voluntary Control
● The somatic nervous system usually operates under voluntary
(conscious) control.
● Voluntary control of movement involves motor areas of the cerebral
cortex that activate somatic motor neurons whenever you have a
desire to move.
● If you want to perform a particular movement (kick a ball, turn a
screwdriver, smile for a picture, etc.), neural pathways from the
primary motor area of the cerebral cortex activate somatic motor
neurons that cause the appropriate skeletal muscles to contract.
Involuntary Control
● The somatic nervous system is not always under voluntary control.
● The somatic motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscles involved
in posture, balance, breathing, and somatic reflexes (such as the
flexor reflex) are involuntarily controlled by integrating centers in the
brainstem and spinal cord.
Sensory Input
● The somatic nervous system can also receive sensory input from
sensory neurons that convey information for somatic senses (tactile,
thermal, pain, and proprioceptive sensations
● All of these sensations normally are consciously perceived.
● In response to this sensory information, somatic motor neurons cause
the appropriate skeletal muscles of the body to contract.
2. Autonomic Nervous System
● The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous
system that regulates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
● These tissues are often referred to as visceral effectors because they
are usually associated with the viscera (internal organs) of the body.
● The ANS consists of autonomic motor neurons that regulate visceral
activities by either increasing (exciting) or decreasing (inhibiting)
ongoing activities in their effector tissues (cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glands).
● Changes in the diameter of the pupils, dilation and constriction of
blood vessels, and adjustment of the rate and force of the heartbeat
are examples of autonomic motor responses.
● Unlike skeletal muscle, tissues innervated by the ANS often function to
some extent even if their nerve supply is damaged.
● The ANS operates without conscious control in most cases.
● Practitioners of yoga or meditation techniques may learn to regulate
some of their autonomic activities through long practice.
Sensory Input in the Autonomic Nervous
System
● The autonomic nervous system can also receive sensory input from
interoceptors, which are sensory receptors located in blood vessels,
visceral organs, muscles, and the nervous system.
● Examples of interoceptors:
1. chemoreceptors that monitor blood CO2 level
2. mechanoreceptors that detect the degree of stretch in the walls of
organs or blood vessels.
● These sensory signals are not consciously perceived most of the time,
although intense activation of interoceptors may produce conscious
sensations.
● Somatic senses and special senses, acting via the limbic system, also
influence autonomic motor neuron responses.
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Divisions
● The autonomic nervous system consists of two main divisions:
1. sympathetic nervous system
2. parasympathetic nervous system.
● Most organs receive nerves from both divisions, an arrangement
known as dual innervation.
● The sympathetic nervous system increases organ activity (excitation),
while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases organ activity
(inhibition).
● The sympathetic nervous system promotes the fight-or-flight
response, preparing the body for emergency situations.
● The parasympathetic nervous system enhances restand-digest
activities, conserving and restoring body energy during times of rest
or digestion.
● The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions maintain health in
different ways.
3. The enteric plexuses
● The autonomic nervous system also includes the enteric plexuses,
which consist of millions of neurons that extend throughout the
digestive canal.
● The enteric plexuses operate involuntarily and can be regulated by
other divisions of the ANS.
● These plexuses contain sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor
neurons:
1. Enteric sensory neurons monitor chemical changes and stretching
of the digestive canal walls.
2. Enteric interneurons integrate information and provide input to
motor neurons.
3. Enteric motor neurons govern smooth muscle contraction and
gland secretion in the digestive canal.
Comparison to Somatic Nervous System
● Unlike the somatic nervous system, which consists of single,
myelinated motor neurons, autonomic motor pathways usually consist
of two motor neurons in series:
1. The first neuron, called the preganglionic neuron, has its cell body in
the CNS and its axon extends to an autonomic ganglion.
2. The second neuron, called the postganglionic neuron, has its cell body
in the autonomic ganglion and its axon extends to the effector
(smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or gland).
● Somatic motor neurons release only acetylcholine as their
neurotransmitter, while autonomic motor neurons release either
acetylcholine or norepinephrine.
Figure 15.1 table 15.1
Autonomic Neurons
● Autonomic neurons can be classified based on the neurotransmitter
they produce and release as:
1. Cholinergic
2. adrenergic.
● The receptors for neurotransmitters are integral membrane proteins
located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron or
effector cell.
Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
● Cholinergic neurons (kō′lin- ER- jik) release the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (ACh).
● In the ANS, cholinergic neurons include:
1. all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons,
2. sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate most sweat
glands,
3. all parasympathetic postganglionic neurons.
ACh Release and Receptors
● ACh is stored in synaptic vesicles and released by exocytosis.
● It diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds with specific cholinergic
receptors in the postsynaptic plasma membrane.
● There are two types of cholinergic receptors:
1. Nicotinic receptors: present in the plasma membrane of dendrites and
cell bodies of both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic
neurons, as well as in chromaffin cells of the suprarenal medullae and
the motor end plate at the neuromuscular junction.

2. muscarinic receptors: present in the plasma membranes of all

effectors innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic axons,
including smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
• Activation of nicotinic receptors by ACh causes depolarization and
excitation of the postsynaptic cell,

• Activation of muscarinic receptors by ACh can cause either

depolarization or hyperpolarization depending on the specific cell.
Muscarinic Receptors
● Muscarinic receptors are named after muscarine, a mushroom poison
that mimics the actions of ACh by binding to them.
● Muscarinic receptors are present in the plasma membranes of all
effectors innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic axons and
some sweat glands innervated by sympathetic postganglionic
neurons.
● Binding of ACh to muscarinic receptors can inhibit smooth muscle
sphincters in the digestive canal and can excite smooth muscle fibers
in the circular muscles of the iris of the eye.
Brief Effects of ACh
● Acetylcholine is quickly inactivated by the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
● Effects triggered by cholinergic neurons are usually brief.
Adrenergic neurons
● In the ANS, adrenergic neurons release norepinephrine (NE), also
known as noradrenalin.
● NE is stored in synaptic vesicles and released by exocytosis.
● NE diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to adrenergic receptors
on the postsynaptic membrane.
● Adrenergic receptors can cause excitation or inhibition of the effector
cell.
Types of Adrenergic Receptors
● Adrenergic receptors bind both norepinephrine and epinephrine.
● The two main types are:
1. alpha (α) receptors: subtypes like α1, α2
2. beta (β) receptors: Subtypes like β1, β2, and β3
● Activation of α1 and β1 receptors generally produces excitation.
● Activation of α2 and β2 receptors causes inhibition of effector tissues.
Functions of Adrenergic Receptors
● β3 receptors are present only on cells of brown adipose tissue.
● β3 receptor activation causes thermogenesis (heat production).
● Most effectors contain either alpha or beta receptors.
● Norepinephrine stimulates alpha receptors more strongly than beta
receptors.
● Epinephrine is a potent stimulator of both alpha and beta receptors.
Termination of Norepinephrine Activity
● NE activity is terminated by uptake by the releasing axon or
enzymatic inactivation.
● CatecholO-methyltransferase (COMT) and monoamine oxidase (MAO)
are enzymes involved in inactivation.
● Norepinephrine lingers in the synaptic cleft longer than ACh.
● Effects triggered by adrenergic neurons are longer lasting
than those triggered by cholinergic neurons.
Receptors agonist and antagonists
● An agonist is a substance that binds to and activates a receptor,

Phenylephrine is an adrenergic agonist at 𝛼1 receptors and is

mimicking the effect of a natural neurotransmitter or hormone.
●
commonly used in cold and sinus medications.
● It constricts blood vessels in the nasal mucosa, reducing mucus
production and relieving nasal congestion.
● An antagonist is a substance that binds to and blocks a receptor,
preventing the natural neurotransmitter or hormone from exerting its
effect.
● Atropine blocks muscarinic ACh receptors, dilates the pupils, reduces
glandular secretions (gland wall relaxation), and relaxes smooth
muscle in the digestive canal.
● It is used in eye examinations, smooth muscle disorders
● Propranolol is a nonselective beta blocker prescribed for hypertension.
● It binds to all types of beta receptors and prevents their activation by
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
● Desired effects include decreased heart rate and blood pressure.
● Undesired effects may include hypoglycemia and mild
bronchoconstriction. (Remember that inhibiting B2-receptors
causes bronchial muscle relaxation and dilation. Blocking the
inhibitory effect of B2 receptors causes bronchoconstriction)
● Selective beta blockers like metoprolol can be prescribed to avoid
these side effects.
Autonomic tone
● The balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity,
called autonomic tone, is regulated by the hypothalamus.
● Sympathetic tone is increased while parasympathetic tone is
decreased, and vice versa.
● Different neurotransmitters and receptors in the effector organs affect
their response to the two divisions.
● Some structures only receive sympathetic innervation.
● An increase in sympathetic tone has one effect, while a decrease
produces the opposite effect.
Sympathetic Responses
● During physical or emotional stress, the sympathetic division
dominates the parasympathetic division.
● High sympathetic tone supports vigorous physical activity and rapid
production of ATP.
● The sympathetic division reduces body functions that favor the
storage of energy.
● Fear, embarrassment, or rage stimulate the sympathetic division.
Effects of Sympathetic Stimulation
● Pupils dilate
● Heart rate, force of heart contraction, and blood pressure increase
● Airways dilate for faster movement of air into and out of the lungs
● Blood vessels that supply the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract
constrict, slowing urine formation and digestive activities
● Blood vessels that supply muscles, liver, and adipose tissue dilate for
greater blood flow
● Liver cells perform glycogenolysis, releasing glucose
● Adipose tissue cells perform lipolysis, releasing fatty acids and
glycerol
● Release of glucose by the liver increases blood glucose level
● Nonessential processes, like muscular movements of the digestive
canal and digestive secretions, slow down or stop
Longer Lasting and Widespread Effects
● Norepinephrine lingers longer in the synaptic cleft than acetylcholine
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine secreted into the blood from the
suprarenal medullae intensify and prolong the responses
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine affect all tissues with alpha and beta
receptors
● Bloodborne NE and epinephrine are destroyed by liver enzymes
Parasympathetic system
● The parasympathetic division is characterized by rest and digest
activities.
● It supports body functions that conserve and restore body energy
during rest and recovery.
Digestive System
● Parasympathetic impulses to the digestive glands and smooth muscle
of the digestive canal predominate over sympathetic impulses during
quiet intervals.
● This allows energy supplying food to be digested and absorbed.
Parasympathetic Responses
● The acronym SLUDD represents five parasympathetic responses:
1. Salivation,
2. Lacrimation,
3. Urination,
4. Digestion,
5. Defecation.
● These activities are mainly stimulated by the parasympathetic
division.
● Other important parasympathetic responses include:
1. decreased heart rate,
2. decreased diameter of airways (bronchoconstriction),
3. and decreased diameter of the pupils.
Autonomic (Visceral) Reflexes
● Autonomic (visceral) reflexes are responses that occur when nerve
impulses pass through an autonomic reflex arc.
● These reflexes play a key role in regulating controlled conditions in the
body, such as blood pressure, heart rate, and digestion.
● They adjust heart rate, force of ventricular contraction, and blood
vessel diameter to regulate blood pressure.
● They adjust the motility and muscle tone of the digestive canal to
regulate digestion.
● They regulate the opening and closing of sphincters to control
defecation and urination.
Components of an Autonomic Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptor: Responds to a stimulus and produces a change that
will trigger nerve impulses.
2. Sensory neuron: Conducts nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS.
3. Integrating center: Relays signals from sensory neurons to motor
neurons. Located in the hypothalamus, brainstem, or spinal cord.
4. Motor neurons: Preganglionic neuron conducts motor impulses from
the CNS to an autonomic ganglion. Postganglionic neuron conducts
motor impulses from an autonomic ganglion to an effector.
5. Effector: Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. The reflex is
called an autonomic reflex.
Autonomic control by higher centres

The Hypothalamus
● Major control and integration center of the ANS
● Receives sensory input related to visceral functions, olfaction,
gustation, temperature, osmolarity, and blood substances
● Receives input relating to emotions from the limbic system
● Influences autonomic centers in the brainstem and spinal cord
Anatomy of the Hypothalamus
● Connected to sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS
● Axons form tracts to parasympathetic and sympathetic nuclei in the
brainstem and spinal cord:
1. Posterior and lateral parts control sympathetic division
2. Anterior and medial parts control parasympathetic division
Effect of Stimulation
1. Stimulation of posterior and lateral parts of the hypothalamus
(Sympathetic division)
a. Increase in heart rate and force of contraction
b. Rise in blood pressure
c. Increase in body temperature
d. Dilation of the pupils
e. Inhibition of the digestive canal

2. Stimulation of anterior and medial parts of the hypothalamus

(Parasympathetic division)
f. Decrease in heart rate
g. Lowering of blood pressure
h. Constriction of the pupils
i. Increased secretion and motility of the gastrointestinal tract
Look at page 564 please (Self study: it is a revision for all we have learnt so
far)