PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF MATERIALS

1. Volumetric and Melting Properties

2. Thermal Properties
3. Mass Diffusion
4. Electrical Properties

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Physical Properties Defined

 Properties that define the behavior of materials in

response to physical forces other than mechanical
 Volumetric, thermal, electrical, and electrochemical
properties
 Components in a product must do more than withstand
mechanical stresses
 They must conduct electricity (or prevent
conduction), allow heat to transfer (or allow its
escape), transmit light (or block transmission), and
satisfy many other functions

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Physical Properties in
Manufacturing
 Important in manufacturing because physical
properties often influence process performance
 In machining, _____ properties of the work
material determine cutting temperature, which
affects tool life
 In microelectronics, electrical properties of silicon
and how these properties can be altered by
chemical and physical processes is the basis of
semiconductor manufacturing

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Volumetric and Melting
Properties
 Properties related to the volume of solids and how
these properties are affected by temperature
 Density
 Thermal expansion
 Melting point

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Density and Specific Gravity

 Density = mass per unit volume

 Typical units are g/cm3 (lbm/in3)
 Determined by atomic number and other factors
such as atomic radius, and atomic packing
 Specific gravity = ___________________________
 Units?

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Why Density is Important

 A consideration in material selection for a given

application, but it may not be the only property of
interest
 Strength may also be important, and the two properties
are often related in a strength‑to‑weight ratio, which is
tensile strength divided by density
 Useful ratio in comparing materials for structural
applications in aircraft, automobiles, and other
products where weight and energy are concerns

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Expansion

 Density of a material is a function of temperature

 In general, density _______ with increasing
temperature
 Volume per unit weight ________ with increasing
temperature
 ____________is the name for this effect of
temperature on density
 Measured as __________________________

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

 Change in length per degree of temperature, such as

mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
 Length ratio rather than volume ratio because this
is easier to measure and apply
 Change in length for a given temperature change:
L2 ‑ L1 = L1 (T2 ‑ T1)
where  = coefficient of thermal expansion; L1 and
L2 are lengths corresponding respectively to
temperatures T1 and T2
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Expansion in
Manufacturing
 Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and expansion
fit assemblies
 Part is heated to increase size or cooled to
decrease size to permit insertion into another part
 When part returns to ambient temperature, a
tightly‑fitted assembly is obtained
 Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat treatment
and welding due to ___________________________

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Melting Characteristics for
Elements
 Melting point Tm of a pure element = temperature at
which it transforms from solid to liquid state
 The reverse transformation occurs at the same
temperature and is called the freezing point
 Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to
accomplish transformation from solid to liquid

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Melting of Metal Alloys

 Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single

melting point
 Instead, melting begins at a temperature called the
______ and continues as temperature increases until
converting completely to liquid at a temperature
called the _________
 Between the two temperatures, the alloy is a
mixture of solid and molten metals
 Exception: _______ alloys melt (and freeze) at a
single temperature

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Melting of Alloys:
Solidus and Liquidus

Phase diagram for

the nickel-copper
alloy system

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Melting of Noncrystalline
Materials
 In noncrystalline materials (glasses), a gradual
transition from solid to liquid states occurs
 The solid material gradually softens as
temperature increases, finally becoming liquid at
the melting point
 During softening, the material has a consistency of
increasing plasticity (increasingly like a fluid) as it
gets closer to the melting point

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Volume-to-Weight Changes

Changes in volume
per unit weight as
a function of
temperature for a
hypothetical pure
metal, alloy, and
glass

Exceptions?

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Importance of Melting in
Manufacturing
 Metal casting - the metal is melted and then poured
into a mold cavity
 Metals with lower melting points are generally
easier to cast
 Plastic molding - melting characteristics of polymers
are important in nearly all polymer shaping processes
 Sintering of powdered metals - sintering does not
melt the metal, but temperatures must approach
close to the melting point to achieve bonding of the
powders
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Properties

 Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are

thermal properties because temperature determines
the thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the
changes in materials
 Additional thermal properties:
 Specific heat
 Thermal conductivity
 These properties relate to the storage and flow of
heat within a substance

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Specific Heat

 The quantity of heat energy required to increase the

temperature of a unit mass of material by one degree
 To determine the energy to heat a certain weight of
metal to a given temperature:
H = C W (T2 ‑ T1)
where H = amount of heat energy; C = specific heat
of the material; W = its weight; and (T2 ‑ T1) = change
in temperature

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Volumetric Specific Heat

 The quantity of heat energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit volume of material by one
degree
 Density  multiplied by specific heat C
 Volumetric specific heat = C

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Conductivity

 Capability of a material to transfer heat through itself

by the physical mechanism of thermal conduction
 Thermal conduction involves the transfer of thermal
energy within a material from molecule to molecule
by purely thermal motions
 No mass transfer
 Coefficient of thermal conductivity k is generally high
in metals, low in ceramics and plastics
 Units for k: J/s mm C (Btu/in hr F)

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Diffusivity

 The ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric specific

heat is frequently encountered in heat transfer
analysis
k
K
C

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Thermal Properties in
Manufacturing
 Important in manufacturing because heat generation
is common in so many processes
 In some cases, heat is the energy that
accomplishes the process
 Heat treating, sintering of powder metals and
ceramics
 In other cases, heat is generated as a result of the
process
 Cold forming and machining of metals

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Mass Diffusion

 Movement of atoms or molecules within a material or

across a boundary between two materials in contact
 Because of thermal agitation of the atoms in a
material (solid, liquid, or gas), atoms are continuously
moving about
 In liquids and gases, where the level of thermal
agitation is high, it is a free‑roaming movement
 In metals, atomic motion is facilitated by vacancies
and other imperfections in the crystal structure

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Mass Diffusion

Two blocks brought into contact: (1) at first, each block has its
own composition; (2) after time, an exchange of atoms begins;
(3) finally, uniform concentration occurs

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Mass Diffusion

Concentration gradients for metal A during diffusion of metal

A into metal B

(1) (2) (3)

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Mass Diffusion in Manufacturing

 Surface hardening treatments based on diffusion

include carburizing and nitriding
 Diffusion welding - used to join two components by
pressing them together and allowing diffusion to
occur across boundary to create a permanent bond
 Diffusion is also used in electronics manufacturing to
alter the surface chemistry of a semiconductor chip in
very localized regions to create circuit details

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Electrical Properties

 Engineering materials exhibit a great variation in their

capability to conduct electricity
 Flow of electrical current involves movement of
charge carriers ‑ infinitesimally small particles
possessing an electrical charge
 In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
 In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive
and negative ions

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Electrical Properties

 Movement of charge carriers is driven by the

presence of electric voltage
 And resisted by the inherent characteristics of the
material, such as atomic structure and bonding
between atoms and molecules

E
Ohm's law: I =
R
where I = current, A, E = voltage, V, and R = electrical
resistance, 

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Electrical Resistance

 Resistance in a uniform section of material (e.g., a

wire) depends on its length L, cross‑sectional area A,
and resistivity of the material r
L A
R r r R
A or L
where resistivity r has units of ‑m2/m or ‑m (‑in)

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Resistivity

 Property that defines a material's capability to resist

current flow
Resistivity r has units of (‑m) or (‑in)
 Resistivity is not a constant; it varies, as do so many
other properties, with ____________
 For metals, resistivity __________ with temperature

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Conductivity

 Often more convenient to consider a material as

conducting electrical current rather than resisting its flow
 Conductivity of a material is simply the reciprocal of
resistivity:
1
Electrical conductivity =
r

where conductivity has units of (‑m)‑1 or (‑in)‑1

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Materials and Electrical
Properties
 Metals are the best conductors of electricity, because
of their metallic bonding
 Most ceramics and polymers, whose electrons are
tightly bound by covalent and/or ionic bonding, are
poor conductors
 Many of these materials are used as insulators
because they possess high resistivities

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Semiconductors

 A material whose resistivity lies between the

resistivities of insulators and conductors
 Most common semiconductor material is silicon,
largely because of its abundance in nature,
relative low cost, and ease of processing
 What makes semiconductors unique is the
capacity to significantly alter conductivities in their
surface chemistries in very localized areas to
fabricate integrated circuits

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e