Isotopes of some common elements

Element Isotope Atomic No. of No. of Natural

number protons neutrons abundanc
e (%)

Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 99.8
1H
2 1 1 1 0.02
1H

Carbon 12 6 6 6 98.89
6C
13 6 6 7 1.11
6C
14 6 6 8 trace
6C
 Question
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the
isotopes notated below:

(a) 13 protons = 7 (b) 60 p = 27

N neutrons = 6 Co n = 33
7 27

(c) 197 p = 79 (d) Plutonium-239

Au n = 118 p = 94
79
n = 145
Note: Apart from the smallest atoms, most nuclei have
more neutrons than protons.
Forces in Physics
Nuclear Forces
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity, or radioactive decay occurs when the
strong force cannot hold together the nucleus of an
atom. It is the spontaneous change of the nuclei and
the emission of subatomic particles and/or high-
frequency electromagnetic radiation.
A radioactive atom (radioisotope) is an atom
with an unstable nucleus.
Stability of
Nuclides No dots past Z =
83 means no
stable isotopes
past Z = 83.
Nd-152 would be here,
outside the belt of
stability. It would be
unstable.

No dots appear on the red

line above Z = 20. What
does this mean? When a positron is emitted or
an electron is captured by a
nucleus, the number of ___
increases and the number of
___ decreases.
 Examples
Example 1
Which of the following would you expect to be
radioactive: 118 234 54
Sn Pa Mn
50 91 25

A Conceptual Example
What kind of radioactive decay would you
expect the nuclide 84Zr to undergo?
40
Types of
Radiation
 Types of Radiation
- Ernest Rutherford passed a beam of radiation from a
radioactive source through electrically charged plates
 Types of Radiation

Emits γ
rays
Emits β- particles Emits α2+ particles
(an electron) (a helium nucleus)
 Types of Radiation
There are 3 types of radiation given off by atoms
 Alpha α (a helium nucleus)
 Beta β (an electron)
 Gamma γ (a high energy wave)
 Alpha Particle Beta Particle Gamma Ray
Emission Emission Emission

Symbol 4 He 2 or 4 2
2 2
0
1 e or 0
1 
0
0 
Mass Heavy Light No Mass

How it changes  Decreases the  Converts a No change to the

the nucleus mass number neutron into a nucleus
by 4 proton
 Decreases the  Increases
atomic number atomic number
by 2 by 1

Penetration Low Medium High

Protection Skin Paper, clothing Lead

provided by…

Danger Low Medium High

Effects of
Radiation
 Effect of Radiation on Matter
a, b and g radiation causes electrons to be ejected from
atoms it is ionizing radiation
 Effect of Radiation on Matter
Ionizing radiation can excite electrons to higher energy levels
with the emission of electromagnetic radiation such as X rays
and ultraviolet light
 Which type of radiation is…..
1. The most penetrating? Gamma
2. The least penetrating? Alpha
3. Least dangerous outside the body? Alpha
4. Most dangerous inside the body? Alpha
5. High energy electrons? Beta
6. Has a negative charge? Beta
7. Is weakly ionising?
Beta
8. Has zero charge and zero mass? Gamma
9. Only reduced in intensity by lead and concrete?
Gamma
 Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Magnetic and ________
electric fields deflect alpha and beta
particles in ________
opposite directions due to their opposite
________.
charges Beta particles deflect more because their ______
mass is
about 8000 times ______
less than alpha particles. Gamma rays,
being _________,
uncharged are not deflected by either type of field.

Radioactivity causes __________

ionisation which can cause living cells
to undergo genetic _________
mutation leading on to possibly
cancerous growth. It is therefore important to minimalise
exposure especially to ______
alpha particles which cause the most
intense ionisation.
WORD SELECTION:
mass uncharged opposite electric less ionisation mutation alpha charges
Sources of
Radiation
Sources of radiation
Man-Made Sources of Radiation

Luminous Watch Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons

Industrial X-Rays Consumer Products

 X-rays

Emitted by high energy electrons

 Natural Sources of Radiation

Radiation from underground Ores

Cosmic Radiation

Granite rocks contain small amounts of

uranium, which decays to release
radon gas (Rn).
 Natural Sources of Radiation
The levels of radon gas in the UK are
determined by the underlying rocks.

Radon Level High to Moderate

Granite

Radon Level Moderate to Low

Radon Level Low

Chalk
Natural Sources of Radiation
 Radiation Units

(biological effect)

1 Sv = 5.5% chance of eventually developing cancer

 Elements and Proton Number
Find the radioactive elements polonium, astatine, radon,
francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium
and plutonium - is there a pattern?
 Nuclear
Equations
 Chemical vs Nuclear Reactions
Chemical reactions Nuclear reactions
- Rearrangement of - Rearrangement of
electrons protons and neutrons
- Numbers of protons - New elements are
and neutrons in the formed
nuclei remain
unchanged
- NO new elements are
formed
 Nuclear equations
Sum Mass Numbers LHS = Sum Mass Numbers RHS

9 + 4 = 13 12 + 1 = 13
1
9 4 12
+ n + γ
4 Be + 2He 6 C 0
4+2=6 6+0=6

Sum Atomic Numbers LHS = Sum Atomic Numbers RHS

 Nuclear equations

226 = 4 + ____
222

226
88 Ra   
4
2
222 Rn
86

86
88 = 2 + ___

Atomic number 86 is radon, Rn

Balancing Nuclear Equations

95
235 + 1 = 139 + 2(1) + ____

235 1 139 1 95 Y
U n
92 0 53 I 2 n
0 39

39
92 + 0 = 53 + 2(0) + ____

Atomic number 39 is yttrium, Y

 Complete the Equations
59 59 0
(a) Fe +
Co -1 β-
26 27
224 220 4
(b) Ra Rn + α
88 86 2
16 16 0
(c) N O + β
-
7 8 -1
 Complete the Equations

238
92 U
234
90 Th +
4
He + γ
2

240
94 Pu
236
92 U +
4
He + γ
2

241
95 Am
237
93 Np +
4
He + γ
2
 Complete the Equations

3H 3 He + 0e + γ
1 2 -1

14 C 14 N + 0e + γ
6 7 -1
 Complete the Equations
Show the equation for Plutonium 239 (Pu)
decaying by alpha emission to Uranium (atomic
number 92).

239 235 4

94
Pu U + 2
α
92
 Complete the Equations
Show the equation for Sodium 25 (Na), atomic
number 11, decaying by beta emission to
Magnesium (Mg).

25 25 0
Na Mg + -1 β
-
11 12
 Questions
(a) Balance the following equations:
14 4 17 1
(i) N + He O + H
γ

7 2 8 1
4
(ii) 7
Li +
1 He
H 2
γ

2
3 1

(iii) 16
O +
1 13 4
He
n C +
γ

8 0 6 2

(iv) 238
U +
1 239
n U
γ

92 0 92
(v) 238 238 0
-1 e
γ

92
U 93
Np +
 Question
(b) A series of radioactive decays can be represented
by the following equation. Write symbols for the
elements X, Y and Z.
α β β
β -decay
β -decay

α-decay

232
90 Th X Y Z

228
X: 88
Ra
228
Y: Ac
89
228
Z: Th
90
 Question
(c) Give three differences between α-particle, β-
particle and γ-radiation.
α-particle β-particle γ-radiation

Charge +2 -1 0
Mass 4 a.m.u. 0 a.m.u. 0 a.m.u.
Relative low moderate high
penetrating
power
 Question
Radon-222 is enclosed in capsules as a radiation source for
treatment of some types of cancer; phosphorus-32 is used to label
red blood cells for blood volume determinations; aluminum-28 is
produced in the bombardment of aluminum-27 by neutrons. Write a
nuclear equation for:
(a) α-particle emission by radon-222,
(b) β– decay of phosphorus-32,
(c) γ decay of aluminum-28.
222 218 4
86 Rn → 84 Po + He 2
32 32 0
15 P → 16 S + −1 e
28 m 28 0
13 Al → 13 Al+ 0γ
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
When an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic
number falls by _______
two and its mass number by ______.
four

Beta particles are emitted by nuclei with too many ________.

neutrons
In this case the atomic number increases by ______
one while the
________
mass number remains unchanged.
Background radiation is mainly due to natural sources of
_________
ionising radiation such as from ________
radon gas that seeps
out from rocks in the ground.

WORD SELECTION:
four one ionising two neutrons mass radon
Nuclear Reactions
Capture
Artificial Nuclear Reactions: Capture
Certain stable nuclei can react with:
1
α-particles, β-particles, neutrons, protons ( H) and
2 1
deuterons ( H ).
1
e.g. 9 1 10
γ
4 Be + 1 H 5 B
+
14
7N + 1H
2 15
O + n
1
+ γ
8 0

23
Ne + 1 H + γ
1 23 1
11 Na + 0 n 10

235 1 142 91 1
92 U  n 0 56 Ba  Kr  3 n
36 0
 Artificial Nuclear Reactions: e- Capture
An inner-orbital electron is captured by the nucleus
Electron capture converts a proton to a neutron

201
80 Hg  e  0
1
201
79 Au   0
0

Mass number unchanged

Atomic number ↓1
 Types of Radioactive Decay

234 234 0
90Th  91 Pa   1e Beta Decay
234 m 234 0
90Th  90Th  0  Gamma Decay
23 26 0
13 Al  12 Mg  1e Positron Decay
125 0 125
53 I   1e  52Te Electron Capture
Radiation Types
Emission
 Radiation Types
 alpha production (α, He): helium nucleus
238 4 234
92U  He  2 90 Th
 beta production (β, e):
234 234 0
90Th  91 Pa  e
1

 gamma ray production (γ):

238
92U  He 4
2
234
90 Th  2 
0
0
 Radiation Types
Fill in the table with the changes that occur...

Decay type Atomic number Mass number

alpha DOWN by 2 DOWN by 4

beta UP by 1 NO CHANGE

gamma NO CHANGE NO CHANGE

Radiation Types
Types of Radiation: Alpha

238
U
234
Th + He
4
+ γ
92 90 2

Atomic number ↓ 2
Mass number ↓ 4
Types of Radiation: Alpha

240Pu 236U + 4 He + γ
94 92 2
Atomic number ↓ 2
Mass number ↓ 4
Types of Radiation: Alpha

241
95 Am
237
93 Np +
4
He + γ
2

Atomic number ↓ 2
Mass number ↓ 4
 Types of Radiation: Beta
Sometimes called Beta decay

Converts a neutron into a proton.

You can see a neutron becomes:

• a proton
• an electron (β- sometimes shown as e-)
• an electron antineutrino ( )
Types of Radiation: Beta

3H 3He + 0e + γ
1 2 -1
Mass number unchanged
Atomic number ↑1
Types of Radiation: Beta

14C 14 N + 0e + γ
6 7 -1
Mass number unchanged
Atomic number ↑1
Types of Radiation: Beta
234
Th 
90
234
91 Pa  
0
1

or

234 234 0
90 Th  91 Pa  e
1

Mass number unchanged

Atomic number ↑1
 Types of Radiation: Gamma

238
U  He
92
4
2
234
90Th  2  0
0

Mass number of the atom is not affected

Atomic number is not affected

Gamma rays are high energy photons produced in

association with other forms of decay. The
associated decay here is alpha decay.
Types of Radiation: Positron Emission
Positrons are the anti-particle of the electron 0
A proton converts to a neutron
1 e
22 0 22
11 Na  e  Ne 1 10
Mass number unchanged
Atomic number ↓1
Decay Series
A Decay Series

A radioactive nucleus reaches a

stable state by a series of steps

Graphic – Wikimedia Commons User Tosaka

Decay Series for Uranium
Half-Lives
 Half-life of radioactive isotopes
LO: understand the nature of fusion and fission

The half-life of a substance is the time it

takes for HALF of the particles in a
sample to decay or for the radioactivity
of a substance to decrease by HALF.

Half-Life is not affected by:

•no. of radioactive nuclei
•chemical conditions
•temperature
 Half-life
For 1000 mg of
I-131 to decay …
It takes another 8
… to 500 mg days for 500 mg to
takes 8 days. decay to 250 mg …
… and 8 more
days for 250 mg to
decay to 125 mg.
 Radioactive decay rates
The radioactive decay law states that the
rate of disintegration of a radioactive
nuclide, called the decay rate or activity, A,
is directly proportional to the number of
atoms present
Rate of Radioactive Decay = A = lN

Radioactive decay is a first-order

process. The decay constant, l, is
analogous to k in the rate of reaction
Half-life of radioactive isotopes
Radioactive isotope Half-life
Oxygen-13 8.7 x 10-3 seconds
Radon-222 3.8 days
Iodine-131 8.06 days
Phosphorus-32 14.3 days
Cobalt-60 5.32 years
Hydrogen-3 12.3 years
Carbon-14 5730 years
Plutonium-239 24 400 years
Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
 Half-life of radioactive isotopes

T1 /2 = 5 ms
 Half-life Question 1
900
Estimate the half-life of
800
the substance whose
decay graph is shown 700

opposite.

activity (Bq)
600

500
The half-life is 400
approximately 20
300
seconds half-life
200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

time (seconds)
 Half-life Question 2
The count rate of a radioactive substance over a 8 hour
period is shown in the table below.
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to
determine the half-life of the substance.
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(hours)
Counts per 650 493 373 283 214 163 123 93 71
minute

The half-life should be about:

2½ hours
Example – The decay of substance X
Substance X decays to Time Nuclei of Nuclei of
substance Y with a X Y
half-life of 2 hours. 2 PM 6400 0
4 PM 3200 3200
At 2 PM there are 6400
nuclei of substance X. 6 PM 1600 4800
8 PM 800 5600
10 PM 400 6000
midnight 200 6200

When will the nuclei of substance X fallen to 50? 4 AM

Question 1 – The decay of substance P
Substance P decays to Time Nuclei of Nuclei of
substance Q with a P Q
half-life of 15 minutes. 9:00 1280 0
At 9:00 there are 1280
nuclei of substance P. 9:15 640 640
Complete the table. 9:30 320 960
9:45 160 1120
10:00 80 1200
10:15 40 1240

How many nuclei of substance P will be left at 11 AM? 5

Question 2 – The decay of substance E
Substance E has a half-life of 3 hours. If at 8 AM it has
a count rate of 600 per second, what will be its count
rate at 2 PM?

at 8 AM count rate = 600 per second

2 PM is 6 hours later (14:00-08:00)
this is 2 half-lives later
therefore the count rate will halve twice
that is: 600  300  150

count rate at 2 PM = 150 per second

Half-life of radioactive isotopes
Choose appropriate words or numbers to fill in the gaps below:
The ________
half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for
half of the _______of
nuclei the substance to decay. It is also equal
to the time taken for the _____
count rate of the substance to halve.

The half-life of carbon 14 is about _______

5600 years. If today a
sample of carbon 14 has a count rate of 3400 counts per
minute then in 5600 years time this should have fallen to
______.
1700 11200 years later the rate should have fallen to ____.
425

The number of carbon 14 nuclei would have also decreased

by ______
eight times.

WORD & NUMBER SELECTION:

5600 nuclei eight half-life 425 1700 count
Detecting
Radiation
 IONISATION
If radiation collides with an atom, the atom
absorbs its energy and becomes ionised :
one or more electrons will be ejected
leaving a positively charged ion.
If this happens to DNA, the result may be:
• High doses: death of the cell (radiation
sickness)
• Low doses: mutation of DNA replication
(birth defects, cancer)
 Questions
1. What is ionisation?
When a neutral atom loses or gains electrons and hence charge.
2. How is a neutral atom positively ionised?
By losing electrons.
3. How is a neutral atom negatively ionised?
By gaining electrons.
4. What two effects on living cells can ionisation have?
Kill cells or cause cancer.
5. Which type of radiation is the most ionising?
Alpha radiation.
6. Which type of radiation is the least ionising?
Gamma radiation.
 How do we detect radiation?
Radiation is silent and invisible to the naked eye
α, β and γ radiation has a lot of energy
It can ionize particles – we can detect this…. Hans
Geiger
•
Geiger Counter
•
This clicks when it detects radiation
•
It detects charged particles (a current) moving through it
 Geiger-Muller counter
Nuclear radiation is ionising radiation – it creates ions when it interacts
with atoms. The atoms are Ne or Ar gas. (there is also a little bromine
to act as a quenching agent to prevent continuous discharge).
The ions will then be attracted to the anode and cathode causing a
current to flow and give a reading on the counter

radioactive
particle
low pressure Ne or Ar gas
anode
+450 V

Counter
0V
thin end
mica
window
anode
 Geiger-Muller counter
To calculate the background radiation:
• measure the average number of decays per second (the count)
• measure the time taken
Calculate the activity, the units are Becquerels (Bq), after Henri
Becquerel who discovered radioactivity

count
Activity 
time
 Photographic film
1. What happens to film when radiation is incident
upon it?
It darkens.

2. Can photographic film tell you the type of radiation incident

upon it?
No, just the amount of radiation received.

3. What can this be used for?

Can be used in radiation badges, that record the
exposure of workers to radiation. Different windows
detect different types of radiation.
 Radiation Badges

People who work with radiation wear radiation badges

to monitor their exposure.
 Uses of
Radiation
Irradiation of Food

γ radiation is used
to kill bacteria and
spores
 Leak detection
A short-lived radioactive gamma source is introduced into
storage tanks and underground pipelines, this is located
with a Geiger-Muller counter
 Monitoring Thickness of xxx
How does this work? The amount of radiation received by the
detector depends on the thickness of the
aluminium foil.
If the thickness increases then the
detector reading falls.
This will cause the computer to bring the
rollers closer together and so decrease
the foil thickness.

Beta radiation must be used.

- alpha would not pass through the
thinnest aluminium
- gamma would not be affected by any
thickness change.

A long half-life source must be used.

- or else a false thickness increase will be
detected.
 Smoke detectors
• A radioactive source inside the alarm
ionises an air gap so that it conducts
electricity.
• In a fire, smoke absorbs the radiation
preventing ionisation of the air
• The drop in electric current caused
sets off the alarm.

• Alpha radiation must be used.

- beta or gamma would not cause
sufficient ionisation nor would they
be affected by smoke.

• A long half-life source must be used.

• - or else a drop in current would set
off the alarm
Modifying Materials with Radiation

• Radiation processing is the treatment of materials with

ionizing radiation to alter them in some way.
• Radiation can be used to kill microorganisms on medical
instruments.
• Food can be irradiated with gamma rays to kill disease-
causing bacteria and to extend shelf life.
• In neutron activation, a method of chemical analysis, a
sample is bombarded with neutrons. Stable nuclei are
converted to radioactive nuclei, which can be identified
by their radioactivity.
Radioactive Tracers
 Radioactive Tracers
Radioactive nuclides can be used as tracers, and their atoms can be
attached to other substances, which are then said to be “tagged.”

The fate of these “tagged” substances can be tracked with a

radiation detector.

These tracers can be used to:

•Detect leaks in underground piping systems.
•Determine frictional wear in piston rings.
•Determine the uptake of phosphorus and its distribution in plants.
•Examine transmission of drugs from mother to fetus.
•Elucidate reaction mechanisms.
A There are two
patients in a
B
hospital. Both are
going to drink
water which has a
gamma emitting
radioactive source
mixed in.

The doctors will

use this to test the
patients’ kidneys
by measuring the
radioactivity in
their kidneys using
a Geiger counter.
 A The graph below shows how the reading on the
Geiger counter changes over time.

Counts per
Esophagus

minute
Stomach
Time
Geige
r Coun
ter The radioactive water passes down the
esophagus into patient A’s stomach

It then travels from the patients stomach

into their kidneys
Kidneys
This patients graph shows the
radioactivity building in the kidneys but
Bladder then it drops as the urine is transferred
down to the bladder, and then on out of
the body.
 B The graph below shows how the reading on the
Geiger counter changes over time.

Counts per
Esophagus

minute
Stomach
Time
Geige
r Coun
ter
Patient B drinks the same radioactive
water, again it travels down through the
stomach to the kidneys
Kidneys

But patient B has a blockage in their

kidneys which stops the radioactive water
being released this causes the
Bladder radioactivity in the graph of patient B’s
kidneys to continue rising slowly.
Barium meal
BaSO4
 Radioactive Tracers
Detection of the metabolic
pathway of an element in a living
organism e.g. I-131, P-32

I-131 is used for diagnosing

thyroid disease
Radiotherapy

For those cancer cells

located deep inside the
body, γ -radiation (from
Co-60 and Ce-137) is used.
 Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are used for imaging and for diagnosing
diseases.
Radioactive tracers

Plants uptake of
phosphorus is
monitored using
a radioactive
isotope
Radioactive-Dating
 Radioactive dating

Uranium in rocks can be

Radioactive Carbon 14 has
used to date formations
been used to try to find the
such as the Grand Canyon
age of the Turin Shroud
 Radiocarbon dating
Living material (for example a plant) contains
a known tiny proportion of radioactive
carbon-14. This has a half-life of about 5600
years.

When the material dies it no longer absorbs

any more carbon. Therefore the amount of
radioactive carbon decreases.
Radiocarbon dating
The age of the once living material can be has estimated that
estimated by comparing its residual the age of the Turin
radioactive carbon content with that of living Shroud is only about
one thousand years
material. – but this is disputed.

This dating method works well if an object is between 5000 and 50,000 years
old.
Carbon-14 is formed at a nearly constant rate in the upper atmosphere by the
 Uranium dating
Igneous rocks contain radioactive
uranium, which has a half-life of
4500 million years.

Each uranium atom eventually

decays into a lead atom.
Uranium dating is
one of the methods
The age of a rock sample can be used to estimate the
worked out by comparing the age of the Earth
amount of lead to that of uranium.
 C-14 Dating Example
A fresh bone gives a radioactive count of 170 counts per minute.
Another ancient bone of the same mass gives a count rate of 50
counts per minute. The background count is 10 counts per
minute. How old is the bone?

Counts due to bones are 170 - 10 = 160 (fresh) and

50 - 10 =40 (ancient)
The count rate of the carbon-14 has fallen to one quarter of its
original value i.e. 160/2 = 80, 80/2=40.

This is two half lives,

So the bone is 5600 x 2 =11200 years old
 C-14 Dating Example
A wooden object from an Egyptian tomb is subjected
to radiocarbon dating. The decay rate observed for its
carbon-14 content is 7.2 dis min–1 per g carbon. What
is the age of the wood in the object (and, presumably,
of the object itself)? The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730
years, and the decay rate for carbon-14 in living
organisms is 15 dis min–1 per g carbon.

How can the age of this

bowl be estimated?
Other Uses
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
A radioactive _______
tracer can be used to detect leakages in
underground pipes. A _______
gamma source is added to the liquid
being transported by the pipe. The ground around the leak
will therefore become ___________.
radioactive

The source must produce gamma radiation because neither

alpha nor ______
beta radiation would be able to _________
penetrate the
ground above the pipe to be detected.
The ________
half-life of the source must be long enough for it to
remain _________
detectable but not too long as to cause long term
radioactivity in the ground.

WORD SELECTION:
half-life detectable radioactive gamma beta penetrate tracer
 Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Magnetic and ________
electric fields deflect alpha and beta
particles in ________
opposite directions due to their opposite
________.
charges Beta particles deflect more because their ______
mass is
about 8000 times ______
less than alpha particles. Gamma rays,
being _________,
uncharged are not deflected by either type of field.

Radioactivity causes __________

ionisation which can cause living cells
to undergo genetic _________
mutation leading on to possibly
cancerous growth. It is therefore important to minimalise
exposure especially to ______
alpha particles which cause the most
intense ionisation.
WORD SELECTION:
mass uncharged opposite electric less ionisation mutation alpha charges
 Safety precautions
The main precaution is to reduce the
dosage received to the minimum
possible.
To achieve this radioactive sources
should:
• be stored in a lead-lined container
• be handled for the minimum possible
time
• be handled only with tongs
• never be pointed at anyone
• never be put in pockets
• be checked by looking at them in a mirror
Nuclear Power
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission can be used as a source of energy as in the
disintegration of U-235 or Pu-239.

235 1 90 143 1
92 U n 0 38 Sr  Xe 3 n
54 0

Unstable U-236
 Chain Reaction
The fission of a nucleus of
Uranium 235 can be initiated by
a neutron.

When this nucleus splits further

neutrons are produced. neutron

These neutrons in turn can

cause more nuclei to split.

An avalanche effect, called a

‘chain reaction’ can then occur.
A chain reaction
Each fission, releases 3
neutrons and binding energy.
 Fission Processes
A self-sustaining fission process is called a chain
reaction.

• 1 neutron causing fission = sustained reaction

• <1 neutron causing fission = reaction stops
• >1 neutron causing fission = violent reaction
(supercritical)
A Fission Reactor
 Parts of a Fission Reactor
1. Fuel rods 4. Coolant
These contain U235 or Pu239. They This transfers the heat energy of the
become very hot due to nuclear fuel rods to the heat exchanger.
fission. Coolant be water, carbon dioxide gas
or liquid sodium.
2. Control rods
Made of boron, when placed in- 5. Heat exchanger
between the fuel rods these absorb Here water is converted into high
neutrons and so reduce the rate of pressure steam using the heat energy
fission. Their depth is adjusted to of the coolant.
maintain a constant rate of fission.
6. Reactor core
3. Moderator This is a thick steal vessel designed to
This surrounds the fuel rods and withstand the very high pressure and
slows neutrons down to make temperature in the core.
further fission more likely. The
moderator can be water or graphite. 7. Concrete shield
This absorbs the radiation coming
from the nuclear reactor.
 A Fission Reactor

5
2

1
3&4

7
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Nuclear fission is the _________
splitting up of the nucleus of an atom
into two smaller nuclei. ________
energy and neutrons are also
usually emitted.
Nuclear ________
reactors use Uranium _____
235 or Plutonium _____to
239
produce energy by nuclear ________.
fission A controlled chain
reaction is maintained by the use of _______
control rods which
absorb some of the _________
neutrons produced.

An _______
atomic bomb is the consequence of an uncontrolled
chain reaction.

WORD SELECTION:
reactors energy 239 atomic splitting
neutrons 235 fission control
A uranium gas centrifuge separation plant
 Production of Uranium-235
Natural uranium consists mostly of the
uranium-238 isotope, with a small amount,
by weight, of uranium-235 which is the
isotope used to carry out fission reactions.

Low grade uranium

powder
Enriched uranium has had its uranium-235 content
increased through the process of isotope separation.

Enriched uranium is a critical component for

both civil nuclear power generation, and military
nuclear weapons.
High grade uranium
powder
 Production of Plutonium-239
Plutonium-239, is an artificial isotope

238 neutron 239

U U
beta
239

Np
beta
239

Pu
The plutonium-239 is then chemically separated to produce high-purity
plutonium-239 metal, which can be used for both civil nuclear power
generation, and military nuclear weapons.
 E=mc 2

Mass Defect
Mass/Energy
Equivalence
 Energy and Mass
Nuclear changes occur with small but measurable losses of
mass. The lost mass is called the mass defect, and is
converted to energy according to Einstein’s equation:

ΔE = Δmc2
Δm = mass defect
ΔE = change in energy
c = speed of light

Because c2 is so large, even small amounts of mass are

converted to enormous amount of energy.
Energetics of Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear energies are normally expressed in the
unit MeV (megaelectronvolt): 1 u = 931.5 MeV

Dm = –0.0061 u or –5.7 MeV

mass defect nuclear binding energy
Nuclear Binding Energy for Helium
 Average Binding Energies

When a nucleus undergoes fission, some mass is converted

into energy; about 3.2 × 10–11 J or approximately 8 × 107 kJ/g
 Example
Example 241
Am = 241.0046 u
Given the nuclear masses: 95
237
Np = 236.9970 u
93
4
He = 4.0015 u
2
calculate the energy associated with the α decay of
americium-241, in MeV.
Nuclear Fusion
Deuterium – Tritium Fusion Reaction
Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier, more
stable nucleus. 2 3 4 1
1 H  1H  2 He  0 n
 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Fission: Splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with
smaller mass numbers.
1 235 142 91 1
0 n 92 U 56 Ba  Kr  3 n
36 0

Fusion: Combining two light nuclei to form a

heavier, more stable nucleus.

2 3 4 1
1 H  H  He  n
1 2 0
 Nuclear Fusion
 In the centre of the Sun, nuclear fusion occurs at between
10,000,000 ºC to 15,000,000 ºC, when hydrogen nuclei collide with each
other with such force that they form helium nuclei.

 A hydrogen nucleus is a positively charged proton.

 When two positively charged protons come close they repel each other
(because like charges repel).

 However, the two nuclei fuse together because they move so fast that the
force of repulsion is overcome. Electrostatic vs Strong Force.

 On the Earth, nuclear fusion reactors use a form of fusion that occurs at
100,000,000 ºC - this is 10 times the temperature of the Sun’s fusion
reaction.

 During this process huge amounts of both heat and light energy are
emitted.
 Nuclear Fusion
This close approach requires that the nuclei have
enormously high thermal energies (over
40,000,000 K)
 Nuclear Fusion
In 1932, Mark Oliphant discovered the
hydrogen isotope tritium, and found that
such heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made
to combine with each other.

The combination of heavy hydrogen nuclei

is the basis of nuclear fusion.

Sir Mark Oliphant

(1901 - 2000)
 Stellar Fusion
The proton-proton
The CNO cycle dominates in
chain dominates in
stars heavier than the Sun.
stars the size of the
Sun or smaller.
Plasma and Nuclear Fusion Reactors
At the very high temperatures required for nuclear fusion the electrons are
knocked off the tritium and deuterium atoms so that they become an
ionised gas.

This ionised gas is known as a plasma.

Inertial fusion implosion on the

Plasma (luminescent gas) can NOVA laser (USA) creates
be seen inside the fusion reactor "microsun" conditions and
plasma
Plasma is the fourth state of matter - over 99% of the visible universe is
plasma (includes the stars). Plasma TV screens, Neon & fluorescent lights
also contain a plasma.
 Nuclear Fusion Reactors
At these high temperature the gases produced are referred to as a plasma.

To maintain and confine the plasma at such high temperatures, the plasma
is confined inside a doughnut shaped magnetic field.

Fusion reactors have the potential to release huge amounts of energy.

However, so far, more energy has to be put into the reactor to produce and
contain the high temperatures than is released by the reaction.

Unlike nuclear fission, fusion only

produces low level radioactive
waste, which can be dealt with
more easily.
 Nuclear Fusion Reactors
In 1954, the ZETA nuclear fusion
reactor started operation at Harwell
Atomic Energy Research
Establishment.

The Zeta reactor used an electrical

current inside the plasma to generate
a magnetic field that compressed the
plasma.
The electromagnetic pulses generated by ZETA reactors cause
impressive lighting effects, which are shown in this image.
Nuclear
Weapons
Fission Bomb Design

Little Boy

Fat Man
 Critical Mass
A sphere of fissile material is too small to
allow the chain reaction to become self-
sustaining as neutrons generated by
fissions can too easily escape.

By increasing the mass of the sphere to a

critical mass, the reaction can become
self-sustaining

Surrounding the original sphere with a

neutron reflector (such as tungsten
carbide) increases the efficiency of the
reactions and also allows the reaction to
become self-sustaining.
Graphic: Wikimedia Commons
 Nuclear Bombs
The first weapon produced the explosive energy through
nuclear fission reactions alone, using either uranium or
plutonium. These are known as atomic bombs.

XX-34 BADGER explosion

fired on April 18, 1953, at
the Nevada Test Site.
 Nuclear Bombs
The second type of nuclear weapon uses a fission bomb, which
compresses and heats a capsule of tritium and deuterium - this initiates a
fusion reaction.

Fusion bombs can be thousands of times more powerful than fission bombs.
They are known as hydrogen bombs.

XX-11 IVY MIKE explosion

fired October 31, 1952 at
the Enewetak test site
Basic Construction of the Teller-Ulam Device
 Stage 1

High-explosive fires
in primary,
compressing
plutonium core into
supercriticality and
beginning a fission
reaction.
 Stage 2

Fission primary emits

X-rays which reflects
along the inside of
the casing, irradiating
the polystyrene
foam.
 Stage 3
Polystyrene foam
becomes plasma,
compressing
secondary, and
plutonium sparkplug
begins to fission.
 Stage 4

Compressed and
heated, lithium-6
deutheride fuel begins
fusion reaction,
neutron flux causes
tamper to fission. A
fireball is starting to
form...
Synthetic
Nuclides
 Synthetic Nuclides

Rutherford, in 1919, was able to convert nitrogen-14

into oxygen-17 plus some extra protons by
bombarding the nitrogen atoms with a particles. This
a naturally occurring form of oxygen and is not
radioactive

Phosphorus-30 was the first synthetic radioactive

nuclide
 Transuranium Elements
In 1940, the first of the transuranium elements—elements
with a Z > 92—was synthesized by bombarding uranium-
238 nuclei with neutrons

238 0 238
92 U  1n  93 U
239 0 239
92 U   1e  93 Np
239 0 239
93 Np   1e  94 Pu
 Transuranium Elements
Considerable energy must be imparted to a positive ion in
order for it to overcome repulsion by a positively charged
nucleus. A machine, called a charged-particle accelerator,
or cyclotron, is capable of this process
Structure of the
Atom
 ATOMS

• scientists are keen to know what everything is made of

• for many years they thought the smallest particle was
the atom (from original idea by Democritus – a Greek
philosopher)

© www.chemsheets.co.uk GCSE 1311 09-Jan-2019

 JOHN! Dalton

1. All elements are made up of atoms.

2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same element are identical.
They have the same mass and chemical
properties.
4. Atoms of different elements are different.
They have different masses and chemical
properties.
5. Atoms of different elements combine to
form a compound. The numbers of
various atoms combined bear a simple
whole number ratio to each other.
 THOMSON – Plum pudding model
1897 – JJ Thomson
• discovered the electron – means that atoms are made
up of smaller particles
• plum pudding model (chocolate chip muffin model)

+
solid ball of + charge
(pudding / cake)
small – electrons
(plums / chocolate chips)

© www.chemsheets.co.uk GCSE 1311 09-Jan-2019

 THOMSON – Plum pudding model
In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray tube to
deduce the presence of a negatively charged particle.

Cathode ray tubes pass electricity through a gas that is

contained at a very low pressure. The cathode rays are
deflected by magnetic and electric fields.
THOMSON – Plum pudding model
 THOMSON – Plum pudding model

• Cathode rays have identical properties (mass:charge

ratio etc.) regardless of the element used to produce
them. All elements must contain identically charged
electrons.

• Atoms are neutral, so there must be positive particles

in the atom to balance the negative charge of the
electrons

• Electrons have so little mass that atoms must contain

other particles that account for most of the mass
 RUTHERFORD – Nuclear model
1908-1913 – Geiger, Marsden, Rutherford

• fired alpha particles at

very thin gold foil
• some bounced back
or deflected

image from Wikipedia (Kurzon)

 RUTHERFORD – Nuclear model

1908-1913 – Geiger, Marsden, Rutherford

small central + nucleus

– electrons move around
outside nucleus
most of the atom is empty
space

© www.chemsheets.co.uk GCSE 1311 09-Jan-2019

NUCLEUS is really small
nucleus = pea
atom = football pitch
 RUTHERFORD – Nuclear model
2
5

 Alpha () particles are helium nuclei

 Particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil
 Particle hits on the detecting screen (film) are recorded
 RUTHERFORD – Nuclear model

Most of the alpha

particles passed
through the foil =>
An atom must be
mostly empty space.

The nucleus is far

A very few alpha
smaller than is
particles bounced back
suggested here.
=>
The nucleus must be
very small and massive.
 RUTHERFORD – Nuclear model
 Most of the particles passed right through
 A few particles were deflected
 VERY FEW were greatly deflected

“Like howitzer shells bouncing off

of tissue paper!”

Conclusions:
 The nucleus is small
 The nucleus is dense
 The nucleus is positively charged

Expected: The mass of the atom = The total mass of the protons........