UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION LAYER 10

• Data Communication - Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol

suite – OSI Model – Introduction to Sockets - Application Layer protocols: HTTP – FTP –
Email protocols (SMTP - POP3 - IMAP - MIME) – DNS – SNMP
UNIT II TRANSPORT LAYER 9
• Introduction - Transport-Layer Protocols: UDP – TCP: Connection Management – Flow
control - Congestion Control - Congestion avoidance (DECbit, RED) – SCTP – Quality of
Service
UNIT III NETWORK LAYER 7
• Switching: Packet Switching - Internet protocol - IPV4 – IP Addressing – Subnetting - IPV6,
ARP, RARP, ICMP, DHCP
UNIT IV ROUTING 7
• Routing and protocols: Unicast routing - Distance Vector Routing - RIP - Link State Routing –
OSPF – Path-vector routing - BGP - Multicast Routing: DVMRP – PIM.
UNIT V DATA LINK AND PHYSICAL LAYERS 12
• Data Link Layer – Framing – Flow control – Error control – Data-Link Layer Protocols –
HDLC –PPP - Media Access Control – Ethernet Basics – CSMA/CD – Virtual LAN – Wireless
LAN (802.11) - Physical Layer: Data and Signals - Performance – Transmission media-
Switching – Circuit Switching.
• UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION LAYER 10
• Data Communication - Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering –
TCP/IP Protocol suite – OSI Model – Introduction to Sockets - Application
Layer protocols: HTTP – FTP – Email protocols (SMTP - POP3 - IMAP -
MIME) – DNS – SNMP
• DATA COMMUNICATIONS
• Data communications is the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must
be part of a communications system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics:
• delivery,
• accuracy,
• timeliness, and
• jitter.
• Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device
or user.
• Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
• Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they
are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
• Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let
us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the
packets arrive with a 30-ms delay and others with a 40-ms delay, the
video will have an uneven quality.
• Components
• A data communications system has five components
• Message
• Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers,
images,audio, and video.
• Text
• In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
• Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is coding.
• Today, the prevalent coding system is Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent
a symbol or character used in any language in the world.
• Numbers
• Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
• However, a code such as Unicode is not used to represent numbers; a number is
directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
• Images
• Images are also represented by bit patterns.
• In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
• The number of pixels depends on the resolution.
• For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or
10,000 pixels.
• In the second case, there is a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the
image.
• After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.
• The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.
• For an image made up of only black and white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit
pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
• If an image is not made up of pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase
the size of the bit pattern to include the gray scale.
• For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns.
• A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel
by 10, and a white pixel by 11.
• There are several methods to represent color images.
• One method is called RGB, so called because each color is made up of a
combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue.
• The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it.
• Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made up of a combination of
three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
• Audio
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
• Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.
• It is continuous, not discrete.
• Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an
electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
• Video
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV
camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
• Data Flow
• Simplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 1.2a).
• Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
• The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
• Half-Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure 1.2b).
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
• Full-Duplex
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time.
• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals
going in the other direction.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
• When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
• NETWORKS
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices
capable of communication.
• a device can be a host, such as a large computer, desktop,
laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
• A device can also be a connecting device such as a router
that connects the network to other networks, a switch that
connects devices together, or a modem (modulator-
demodulator) that changes the form of data.
• Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software.
• Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.
• Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
• Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two
possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
• Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two devices share a
single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially
or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
• Physical Topology
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
• Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each
node must be connected to every other node.
• Node 1 must be connected to n − 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n − 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n − 1 nodes.
• We need n(n − 1)/2 physical links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n − 1 input/output (I/O) ports to be
connected to the other n − 1 stations.
• Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another.
• Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.
• Bus Topology
• The preceding topology examples all describe point-to-point connections.
• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
• Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater, which regenerates the
bits and passes them along.
• NETWORK TYPES
• Local Area Network
• A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and
connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus.
• Each host in a LAN has an identifier, which is an address that
uniquely defines the host in the LAN.
• A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source
host’s and the destination host’s addresses.
• When LANs were used in isolation (which is rare today), they
were designed to allow resources to be shared between the hosts.
• LANs today are connected to each other and to WANs to create
communication at a wider level.
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of
communication. However, there are some differences between a LAN and a
WAN.
• A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a
campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a
country, or even the world.
• A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems. We see two distinct examples of WANs today:
point-to-point WANs and switched WANs.
• Point-to-Point WAN
• A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two
communicating devices through a transmission medium (cable or
air).
• Switched WAN
• A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
• It is used in the backbone of a global communications network today.
• Internetwork
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to
one another.
• When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or
internet.
• As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast
and the other on the west coast.
• Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate
with each other.
• To make the communication between employees at different offices possible, the
management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service provider, such
as a telephone company, and connects the two LANs.
• Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet (with lowercase i).
Communication between offices is now possible.
• Figure shows another internet with several LANs and WANs
connected. One of the WANs is a switched WAN with four switches.
• A heterogeneous internetwork made of four WANs and two LANs
• The Internet
• An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks
that can communicate with each other.
• The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase
I) and is composed of thousands of interconnected
networks.
• Figure shows a conceptual (not geographical) view of the
Internet.
• The figure shows the Internet as several backbones,
provider networks, and customer networks.
• At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned
by some communication companies.
• The backbone networks are connected through some complex switching
systems, called peering points.
• At the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider
networks, that use the services of the backbones for a fee.
• The provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to
other provider networks.
• The customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet that
actually use the services provided by the Internet.
• They pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service
Providers (ISPs).
• The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider
networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.
• Accessing the Internet
• The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it.
• The user, however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP.
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN (such
as a telephone network, a cable network, a wireless network, or other types of
networks).
• Using Telephone Networks
• Today most residences and small businesses have telephone service, which means they
are connected to a telephone network.
• Because most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet,
one option for residences and small businesses to connect to the Internet is to change the
voice line between the residence or business and the telephone center to a point-to-point
WAN.
• This can be done in two ways.
• Dial-up service.
• The first solution is to add a modem that converts data to voice to the telephone line.
• The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates making a telephone connection.
• Unfortunately, the dial-up service is very slow, and when the line is used for an Internet connection, it
cannot be used for a telephone (voice) connection.
• It is only useful for small residences and businesses with occasional connection to the Internet.
• DSL Service.
• Since the advent of the Internet, some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to provide
higher-speed Internet services to residences or small businesses.
• The digital subscriber line (DSL) service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and data
communications.
• Using Cable Networks
• More and more residents over the last two decades have begun
using cable TV services instead of antennas to receive TV
broadcasting.
• The cable companies have been upgrading their cable networks and
connecting to the Internet.
• A residence or a small business can be connected to the Internet by
using this service.
• It provides a higher-speed connection, but the speed varies
depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable.
• Using Wireless Networks
• Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly popular.
• A household or a small business can use a combination of wireless and wired
connections to access the Internet.
• With the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a small business can
be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.
• Direct Connection to the Internet
• A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and
be connected to the Internet.
• This can be done if the organization or the corporation leases a high-speed
WAN from a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional ISP.
• For example, a large university with several campuses can create an
internetwork and then connect the internetwork to the Internet.
• PROTOCOL LAYERING
• In data communications and networking, a protocol
defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one
simple protocol;
• when the communication is complex, we may need to
divide the task between different layers, in which case we
need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
• Scenarios
• First Scenario
• In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in
only one layer.
• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
• Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face
to face, in the same language, as shown in Figure.
• Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be
followed.
• First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other
when they meet.
• Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to
the level of their friendship.
• Third, each party knows that she should refrain from speaking
when the other party is speaking.
• Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a
dialog, not a monolog: Both should have the opportunity to talk
about the issue.
• Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.
• We can see that the protocol used by Maria and Ann is different from
the communication between a professor and the students in a lecture
hall.
• The communication in the second case is mostly monolog; the
professor talks most of the time unless a student has a question, a
situation in which the protocol dictates that she should raise her hand
and wait for permission to speak.
• In this case, the communication is normally very formal and limited to
the subject being taught.
• Second Scenario
• In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level
position in her company but needs to move to another branch located in a
city very far from Maria.
• The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange
ideas because they have come up with an innovative project to start a
new business when they both retire.
• They decide to continue their conversations using regular mail through
the post office.
• However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed to other people if
the letters are intercepted.
• They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
• The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an
intruder; the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original
letter.
• We discuss the encryption/decryption methods later in the book,
but for the moment we assume that Maria and Ann use one
technique to make it hard to decrypt the letter if one does not
have the key for doing so.
• Now we can say that the communication between Maria and
Ann takes place in three layers, as shown in Figure.
• We assume that Ann and Maria each have three machines (or
robots) that can perform the task at each layer.
• A three-layer protocol
• Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to Ann.
• Maria talks to the machine at the third layer as though the
machine is Ann and is listening to her.
• The third-layer machine listens to what Maria says and
creates the plaintext (a letter in English), which is passed to
the second-layer machine.
• The second-layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it,
and creates the ciphertext, which is passed to the first-layer
machine.
• The first-layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the
cipher text, puts it in an envelope, adds the sender and
receiver addresses, and mails it.
• At Ann’s side, the first-layer machine picks up the letter
from Ann’s mailbox, recognizing the letter from Maria by
the sender address.
• The machine takes out the cipher text from the envelope
and delivers it to the second-layer machine.
• The second-layer machine decrypts the message, creates
the plaintext, and passes the plaintext to the third-layer
machine.
• The third-layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it as
though Maria is speaking.
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
• For example, in the above Figure, we could have used only one machine to do
the job of all three machines.
• However, if Maria and Ann decide that the encryption/decryption done by the
machine is not enough to protect their secrecy, they have to change the whole
machine.
• In the present situation, they need to change only the second-layer machine;
the other two can remain the same.
• This is referred to as modularity.
• Modularity in this case means independent layers.
• A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with
inputs and outputs, without concern about how inputs
are changed to outputs.
• If two machines provide the same outputs when given
the same inputs, they can replace each other.
• For example, Ann and Maria can buy the second-layer
machine from two different manufacturers.
• As long as the two machines create the same ciphertext
from the same plaintext and vice versa, they do the job.
• One of the advantages of protocol layering is that it allows
us to separate the services from the implementation.
• A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the
lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we
don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
• For example, Maria may decide not to buy the machine (robot) for the first
layer; she can do the job herself.
• As long as Maria can do the tasks provided by the first layer, in both
directions, the communications system works.
• Another advantage of protocol layering, which cannot be seen in our simple
examples, but reveals itself when we discuss protocol layering in the
Internet, is that communication does not always use only two end systems;
there are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all
layers.
• If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make each
intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which makes the whole
system more expensive.
• Is there any disadvantage to protocol layering? One can
argue that having a single layer makes the job easier.
• There is no need for each layer to provide a service to the
upper layer and give service to the lower layer.
• For example, Ann and Maria could find or build one
machine that could do all three tasks.
• However, as mentioned above, if one day they found that
their code was broken, each would have to replace the
whole machine with a new one instead of just changing the
machine in the second layer.
• Principles of Protocol Layering
• First Principle
• The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional
communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to
perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
• For example,
• the third-layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the
other direction).
• The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt.
• The first layer needs to send and receive mail.
• Second Principle
• The second important principle that we need to follow in
protocol layering is that the two objects under each layer
at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under the third layer at both sites
should be a plaintext letter.
• The object under the second layer at both sites should be a
cipher text letter.
• The object under the first layer at both sites should be a
piece of mail.
• Logical Connections
• After following the above two principles, we can think
about logical connections between each layer as shown in
Figure.
• This means that we have layer-to-layer communication.
• Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary)
connection at each layer through which they can send the
object created from that layer.
• We will see that the concept of logical connection will
help us better understand the task of layering we encounter
in data communications and networking.
• TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Now after knowing about the concept of protocol layering and the
logical connections between layers, we can introduce the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different
layers) used in the Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower-level
protocols.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is defined as five layers as shown in
Figure.
• Layered Architecture
• To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in
communication between two hosts, we assume that we want to use the
suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a link-
layer switch.
• We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown in
Figure.
• Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B.
• As Figure shows, we have five communicating devices in this
communication: source host (computer A),
• the link-layer switch in link 1,
• the router,
• the link-layer switch in link 2,
• and the destination host (computer B).
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of
the device in the internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers.
• The source host needs to create a message in the application layer and
send it down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination
host.
• The destination host needs to receive the communication at the
physical layer and then deliver it through the other layers to the
application layer.
• The router is involved only in three layers; there is no transport or
application layer in a router as long as the router is used only for routing.
• Although a router is always involved in one network layer, it is involved in
n combinations of link and physical layers in which n is the number of links
the router is connected to.
• The reason is that each link may use its own data-link or physical protocol.
• For example, in Figure, the router is involved in three links, but the
message sent from source computer A to destination computer B is
involved in two links.
• Each link may be using different link layer and physical-layer protocols;
the router needs to receive a packet from link 1 based on one pair of
protocols and deliver it to link 2 based on another pair of protocols.
• A link-layer switch in a link, however, is involved only in
two layers, data-link and physical protocols.
• Although each switch in Figure has two different
connections, the connections are in the same link, which uses
only one set of protocols.
• This means that, unlike a router, a link-layer switch is
involved only in one data-link and one physical layer.
• Communication through an internet
• Brief Description of Layers
• To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think
about the logical connections between the layers.
• Figure shows the logical connections in our simple internet.
• Using logical connections makes it easier for us to think about the
duty of each layer.
• As Figure shows, the duty of the application, transport, and
network layers is end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-
hop, in which a hop is a host or router.
• In other words, the domain of duty of the top three layers is the
internet, and the domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.
• Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite
• Another way of thinking about the logical connections is to
think about the data unit created from each layer.
• In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be
changed by any router or link-layer switch.
• In the bottom two layers, the packet created by the host is
changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer switches.
• Figure shows the second principle discussed previously for
protocol layering.
• We show the identical objects below each layer related to
each device.
• Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite
• Note that, although the logical connection at the
network layer is between the two hosts,
• we can only say that identical objects exist between
two hops in this case
• because a router may fragment the packet at the
network layer and send more packets than received.
• Note that the link between two hops does not change
the object.
• Description of Each Layer
• Physical Layer
• We can say that the physical layer is responsible for carrying
individual bits in a frame across the link.
• The physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• The communication between two devices at the physical layer is still a
logical communication because there is another hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer.
• Data-Link Layer
• We have seen that an internet is made up of several links (LANs and
WANs) connected by routers.
• When the next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link
layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the
link.
• Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source
computer and the destination computer.
• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• However, because there can be several routers from the source to the destination,
the routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for each packet.
• Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
• The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application layer;
encapsulates it in a transport-layer packet (called a segment or a user datagram in
different protocols); and sends it, through the logical (imaginary) connection, to the
transport layer at the destination host.
• In other words, the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the
application layer: to get a message from an application program running on the
source host and deliver it to the corresponding application program on the
destination host.
• Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is end-to-
end.
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between the two layers.
• However, we should know that the communication is done through
all the layers.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes
(two programs running at this layer).
• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and
receives a response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application
layer.
• THE OSI MODEL
• Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the
TCP/IP protocol suite, it is not the only suite of protocols defined.
• Established in 1947, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
• Almost three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented
in the ISO.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols
in the OSI stack.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows communication between all types of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information across a network.
• OSI versus TCP/IP
• When we compare the two models, we find that two
layers, session and presentation, are missing from the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
• These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP
protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model.
• The application layer in the suite is usually considered
to be the combination of three layers in the OSI model,
as shown in Figure
• Two reasons were mentioned for this decision.
• First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.
• Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available
in some of the transport-layer protocols.
• Second, the application layer is not only one piece of
software.
• Many applications can be developed at this layer.
• If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session and
presentation layers are needed for a particular application,
they can be included in the development of that piece of
software.
• Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• Most experts were at first excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would
be fully replaced by the OSI model.
• This did not happen for several reasons, but we describe only three, which are
agreed upon by all experts in the field.
• First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time
and money had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
• For example, although the services provided by the presentation and the
session layers were listed in the document, actual protocols for these two
layers were not fully defined, nor were they fully described, and the
corresponding software was not fully developed.
• Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different
application, it did not show a high enough level of performance to entice the
Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.