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week-1-2-variables

statistics for psychology

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2 views

week-1-2-variables

statistics for psychology

Uploaded by

maghferat.dost12
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Variables and

Hypotheses

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Variables and Hypotheses

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


What is a Variable?
 A variable is a variation within a class of
objects (i.e., eye color).
 A constant is a characteristic with no
variations within a class of objects (i.e., grade
level of ninth graders).
 Researchers choose certain variables to study
since they are suspected to be related to a
possible relationship to be discovered.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Quantitative vs. Categorical Variables
 Variables are classified as either
quantitative (continuous) or categorical
(qualitative/dicrete)
 A quantitative variable is conceptualized
and analyzed in distinct categories, with no
continuum implied (i.e., height).
 Can be subdivided into smaller units
 A categorical variable does not vary in
degree, amount, or quantity, but are
qualitatively different (i.e., political party).
 There is no middle ground or in-between
measurement

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Quantitative vs. Categorical Variables (Figure 3.1)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


More Detailed: Levels of
Measurement-Type of Variables
(Data)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio Absolute zero


IntervalDistance is meaningful
OrdinalAttributes can be ordered

Nominal
Attributes are only named; weakest
McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
Independent vs. Dependent Variables
 The independent variable is what the researcher
studies to see its relationship or effects.
 Presumed or possible cause
 The dependent variable is what is being
influenced or affected by the independent
variable
 Presumed results
 Independent variables may be either manipulated
or selected
 A manipulated variable is a changed condition the
researcher creates during a study, also known as an
experimental or treatment variable
 A selected variable is an independent variable that
already exists

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


The Relationship between
Independent and Dependent
Variables

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Other Types of Variables
 Outcome Variable
 A dependent variable that is quantitative
 Most studies demonstrating this would have a
categorical independent variable
 The investigator is interested in the effects that
might lead to differences in methods = outcomes
 Moderator Variable
 Special type of independent variable
 Selected to determine if it affects (modifies) the
basic relationship between the primary
independent variable and the dependent variable
(Figure 3.2)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Other Types of Variables
(cont.)
 Extraneous Variable
 Independent variables that have not been
controlled
 Considered a basic problem in research
 The task is to control these variables by
reducing or eliminating their effects
 A method to control extraneous variables is to
hold them constant
 Figure 3.3 illustrates the importance of
identifying extraneous variables

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Examples of Extraneous Variables (Figure 3.3)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


What is a Hypothesis?
 A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the
possible outcome of a study
 Advantages of stating hypotheses include:
 Forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the
possible outcomes of the study
 Enables us to make specific predictions based on prior
evidence or theoretical argument
 Helps to clarify whether we are or aren’t investigating a
relationship
 Disadvantages of stating hypotheses include:
 May lead to a bias on the part of the researcher
 In some studies, it would be presumptuous to predict what
findings would be
 Focusing on the hypothesis could prevent the researcher
from seeing other phenomena that might be important to
the study

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Hypotheses from a Single Research Question
(Figure 3.4)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Directional vs. Non-directional
Hypotheses
 A directional hypothesis is one in which the researcher
indicates the specific direction that he or she expects will
emerge in a relationship in the study.
 The direction is based on what the researcher has found from:
 Literature
 Personal experiences
 Experience from others

 A non-directional hypothesis is when there is no specific


prediction about what direction the outcome of a study will
take.
 Sometimes it is difficult to make specific predictions upon a study
 A study may state that it would point to non-specific directions vs.
distinct possibilities

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights


Directional vs. Non-Directional
Hypotheses (Figure 3.5)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights

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