CHAPTER-TWO

SENSORS AND TRANSDUSERS

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 Outlines
Introduction
Classifications of sensor/Transducer
 Based on Physical effect employed
 Based on energy source they use
 Based on physical quantity conversion

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 2.1 Introduction
 Sensor is a component or device that detects
variation of input or physical phenomenon and
responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or non
electrical quantity corresponding to it.
 Produce measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
 Transducer is a device that convert one form of
energy to other form.
 It converts the measurand to a usable electrical signal.
 It is a device that is capable of converting the
physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.
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 Cont….
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely
related to each other i.e. the sensing element and
transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor.
• The transduction element convert the sensor
output to suitable electrical form.

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 Cont..
• Sensor is a transducer but transducer is more than a
sensor, if it is used for sensing application both terms are
used interchangeably.
• The physical quantity to be measured (measurands) can
be:
• Displacement
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Weight
• Force
• Flow
• Level
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 2.2. Classification of Sensors
 Sensors can be classified based on:
Energy source they used to provide an output as active
and passive sensors
 Physical effect employed as resistive, inductive &
capacitive sensors
Physical quantity they convert as displacement sensor,
temperature sensor, speed sensor, pressure sensor e.t.c
 So due to the change in physical quantity, there will
be a physical effect or variation in resistance,
inductance and capacitance, then due to these
effects there will be a change in electrical
signal such as current and voltage.
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 2.2.1. Based on Physical effect employed
• Based on the Physical effect employed sensors can be
classified as:
 Resistive: Here there will be a change or
variation in resistance
 Capacitive: change or variation in capacitance
 Inductive: change or variation in inductance

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 2.2.1.1.Variation in resistance
• Resistance is the character or ability of an element to oppose the flow of
current.
• Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the resistance change
due to the change in some physical phenomenon
• Often the resistance of an element is given in either of formula;

Where resistivity, l is length

and A is cross-area

• If any physical effect employed causes change in either of these

parameter, then the resistance value will vary in response to the
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cause
 Cont..
• Some of the very common sensors which work
based up on this principle are:
 Potentiometer; for linear and angular
displacement measurement,
 Resistance thermometer( resistance temperature
detectors( RTD), thermistor; for temperature
measurement
 Strain gauge; for stress measurement such as;
pressure ,force ,torque
 Photo resistor (photoconductor) , for light
intensity measurement
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 1. Potentiometer (POT)
• The potentiometer is used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact and excited by
dc or ac voltage source. The sliding contact is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of
the two.
• Fig shows a rotary pot and a linear pot.

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 Cont..
• So the relation between input voltage , slider
position and out put voltage is given

Where K is the sensitivity

• The sensitivity is the rate of output voltage per
input displacement and is given by

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 Example
• Consider the above Linear displacement measurement
circuit of with input voltage of 5-volt the output voltage
is 2.5-volt. The total resistance element length is
100mm. The Linear displacement of an object causes the
sliding contact to move such that the output voltage is
2.65-volt. Determine the displacement of the object
and the direction to which it moves.
• Solution:
Given V0=2.5v,Vin=5v ,L=100mm and the displacement X
can be obtained from

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 Cont..
• If the output is now 2.65v, it means that displacement to
the up direction has occurred, and the total displacement
X is given by

• The sensitivity K is given by ,

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 2. Resistance-temperature detector (RTD)
• Resistance-temperature detector is a
temperature sensing device whose resistance
increases with temperature, also referred as
positive temperature co-efficient (PTC).
• As they are almost invariably made of platinum,
they are often called platinum resistance
thermometers (PRTs). Platinum RTD has a
nominal resistance of 100 Ω at 0 0C as shown
bellow

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 cont,..
• Relation ship b/n temperature and resistance

• The mathematical relation between the resistance

and temperature of Resistance temperature detectors
(RTD) is given by

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 Cont..
 Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitable for precision applications
 Limitations:
• RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used
above 660 °C
• Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are
less sensitive to small temperature changes and
have a slower response time
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 3. Thermistor
• A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies
significantly (more than in standard resistors) with
temperature
• Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
• Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are
made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) of resistivity i.e. their
resistance decreases with increase of temperature.
• thermistors typically achieve a higher precision
within a limited temperature range [usually −90 °C to
130 °C].

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 Con…
• The resistance RT of a thermistor at a temperature
(T) can be expressed by the equation:

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 Application of thermistors
• NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive
applications. For example, they monitor things like coolant
temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital
thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery
packs while charging.
Exercise: A platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) has a
resistance of 100 ohm at 25oc and its temperature coefficient
of resistance at 25oc is 0.00392/oc.
a. find the resistance at 65oc
b. if the thermometer has a resistance of 150ohm find
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temperature Electrical measurment & instrumentation 19
 4. Strain gauge
• Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due
to an applied force. More specifically, strain (ε) is
defined as the fractional change in length
• Converts the mechanical elongation and compression into
a resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in
length and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when
an external force acts on it.

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 Cont..
• A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its
sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as the gauge
factor (GF)
• Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in
electrical resistance to the fractional change in length
(strain):

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 5. Photo resistors / Photoconductors
• Photo resistor, light dependent resistor (LDR) or
cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light
intensity. It is also referred to as a photoconductor.
Often it is made of a high resistance semiconductor.
• If light falling on the device is of high enough
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band.
• The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

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 Cont..
 R/n ship b/n Temperature and resistance

 Photo resistors are available in many different types.

Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many
consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights,
clock radios, alarms,
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and outdoor clocks
Electrical measurment & instrumentation 23
 2.2.1.2 Variation in Capacitance
 Capacitance is the ability of an element to store electric
charges in its electric field
 In capacitive transducers the measurand is converted to a
change in the capacitance.
 A typical capacitor is composed of two parallel plates of
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating
material called a dielectric
 The capacitance value is given by d

Area=A

 The parallel plate capacitor is used to measure some

physical parameters such as displacement or thickness
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 Cont..
• So variation of the parameters such as Area ,
length and thickness will have an effect on the
capacitance value

• These types of sensors can be found in machining

and manufacturing facilities
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 2.2.1.3 Variation of inductance
• Inductance is the ability of an element to store electric
energy in its magnetic filed.
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a
transducer which converts the physical motion into the
change in inductance.
• Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement.
• The inductive transducers are of the self generating or
the passive type

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 Cont..
• The inductance of a coil winding with N number
of turn in a material of permeability is given by :

 Some of the inductive sensors are:

• Inductance force sensor, torque sensor, Inductance
displacement sensor
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

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 1. Inductance displacement sensor
• The inductance may vary with the variation in the
number of turns.
• As inductive transducers are mainly used for
displacement measurement, with change in
number of turns the self inductance of the coil
changes in-turn changing the displacement

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 Cont..
• An inductive transducer that works on the principle of
change in self inductance of coil due to change in the
permeability is shown in fig bellow
• As shown in fig the iron core is surrounded by a winding.
If the iron core is inside the winding then the permeability
increases otherwise permeability decreases. This cause the
self inductance of the coil to increase or decrease
depending on the permeability.
• The displacement can be measured using this transducer

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 Cont..
• Fig bellow shows a variable reluctance inductive
transducer
• The reluctance of the magnetic path is found by the size
of the air gap.
• The self inductance of coil is given by
• L = N2 / R = N2 / Ri + Ra
• N : number of turns
• R : reluctance of coil
• Ri : reluctance of iron path
• Ra : reluctance of air gap
• Displacement changes with the length of the air gap, the
self inductance is a function of the displacement.
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 2. Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT)
• LVDT is the most commonly used sensor for
displacement measurement applications. It is a
transformer consisting a single primary winding and two
secondary windings wound on a tubular ferromagnetic
former
• The secondary winding is connected in such a way that
the output is the difference of them.
• When the core is in the center, the voltage induced in the
two secondary winding is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction from
center, the voltage induced in one winding increase and
that in the other is decreased
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 Cont..

• When the core is exactly at the center Output

voltage eo is zero. This position is called “null
position”

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 Cont..
• If the core is displaced from its null position
toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1 increases
and flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore
eo1 > eo2 and the output voltage of LVDT eo
will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2
then the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage of
LVDT eo will be negative

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 2.2.2 Based on the energy they used to provide an
output
 Sensors or transducers are also classified as active or passive
sensors based on the energy they use
2.2.2.1 Passive sensors
 Passive sensors are those sensors which consume or require
electrical energy to provide an output Example:
so far discussed sensors .
2.2.2.2 Active sensors
 Active sensors are those which don’t consume rather provide
electrical energy corresponding to Input. the following are
examples of active sensors
 Thermoelectric (Thermocouple) V(T) temp
 Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) I(E) illumination
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Piezoelectric crystals Electrical
---- measurment
I(F), I(P) or V(P)
& instrumentation 34
 1.Thermoelectric (Thermocouple)
 Thermoelectricity is the relationship between the
temperature of a substance and electrical energy.
 If two different dissimilar metals A and B are joined
together and, subjected to temperatures at their junction,
there is a potential difference in electrical
potential across the junction called the contact potential.
 Thermoelectric principles
• Change in temp lead to voltage generation

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 Cont..

• Set up of thermocouple is as follow

• Thermocouple is one of the most frequently used temperature

transducers which are very
• Rugged
• inexpensive,
• providing accurate measurement over a wide temperature
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ranges.
 Cont..

• Often they generate a very low voltage, but they can also
connected in series to form the so called thermopile.
They are widely used for temperature measurement
ranging from home, hospitals to industry, in the ranges
from
• -300 0C to 2000 0C
• Some of their applications are
• in industries, such as furnace, measuring temperature of
liquid metals and even in nuclear reactors,
• in medical applications such as monitoring internal
temperature during operation,
• To monitor or record temperature with data acquisition
systems or data loggers
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 Cont..
• Types of thermocouple

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 2.Solar cells or photovoltaic cells
• Solar cells are semiconductor devices which produce
electric energy when illuminated; usually silicon
element is used as solar cell. Often DC Voltage is
generated that is proportional to the incident light.
• Photovoltaic cells are used for production of electrical
energy and as sensing elements they are also used
for sensing light intensity

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 3.Piezoelectric sensors
• Piezoelectric crystals are special materials which produce
charge distribution when they are subjected to an
external pressure or force.
• These are based on the natural phenomenon of certain
non-metals and electronic compounds, materials like
Quartz, Rochelle Salt, barium titanate develop electric
charge when subjected to force.

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 2.2.3 Based on the quantity they convert

 Sensors are also classified based on the

quantity they convert as
 Displacement sensor
 Torque sensors
 Force sensors
 Optical sensor
 Proximity sensors
 Temperature sensors, speed sensors, level/flow
sensors, acceleration/vibration sensors

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 1.Optical sensors
• Optical sensors are one of the most widely used sensing
elements that uses the effect of light (visible or infrared)
for sensing
• Basically they consist of light sources and detectors or
detection of various physical parameters.
• The Light sources are often light emitting diodes
(LED’s) and light detectors which are silicon
phototransistors (a semiconductor device that biases
when light fall on it)

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 Cont.
• Optical sensors have a wide variety of application
in sensing various physical parameters being
measured such as;
• proximity
• sensing of object,
• alarm systems, isolation, control application.

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 2. Proximity sensors

• Proximity measurement refers to indicating

whether an object is present with in a defined area
or not
• Proximity sensors are widely used in
manufacturing, often monitoring the position,
detecting presence or non-presence of
components, and they are also used to count
products, for example items on a conveyor belt to
be palled in a set size of box.
• Some of the types of proximity sensors are
Micro switches, Variable reluctance proximity
sensor and infrared sensors
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 Micro switch
• These are mechanical switches that operate with
very little movement of operating plunger so are
sensitive and particularly suitable for use as
direct contact proximity sensors
• The contacts may be normally open, close or
change over. This opening or closing contacts
is used to make or break and circuit.

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 3.Pressure sensors
 Pressure is a measure of a force acting on an area
 There are so many types of sensor used for measurement
of pressure these are;
• Liquid manometers
• Barometers
• Elastic pressure sensor
• Capacitive sensors, piezoelectric sensors , strain gauges
Manometers
 It deflects by means of liquid in tube

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 Elastic pressure sensors
Elastic sensors are so called because something flexes,
stretches, or temporarily deforms when a pressure is
being applied
 Examples of Elastic pressure sensors:
 bellows,
 the diaphragm, and the
 bourdon tube.
• Each of these devices converts a fluid pressure into a
force.
• If unrestrained, the natural elastic properties of the
element will produce a motion proportional to the
applied
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pressure. Electrical measurment & instrumentation 47
 Cont..

• Figure

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 4.Temperature measurement
 Commonly temperature measurement device are
called thermometer and sometimes pyrometer if they
measure high temperature.
 The most commonly used types of temperature
measurement devices work based on or by means of
 Liquid expansion ; mercury in glass thermometer
 Metal expansion; bimetallic strip
 Thermoelectricity; thermocouple
 Electrical resistance (resistance thermometer
detectors(RTD) , Thermistor
N.B we have already discussed about thermocouple ,
RTD & Thermistors Electrical measurment & instrumentation
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 Mercury in glass thermometer
• Liquid expansion thermometer work on the principle that
certain liquids change their volume (expand) by large
amount when they are subjected to temperature

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 Bimetallic strip
• The expansion property of materials when subjected
to temperature is also used for measurement of
temperature.
• The bimetallic strip is a device made of two
dissimilar metals strips having different expansively
(called coefficient of expansion) which are of the
same length, connected and secured together
• If we take two equally-sized strips of copper and
iron, lay them side-by-side, and then heat both of
them to a higher temperature, we would see the
copper strip lengthen slightly more than the iron
strip:
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 Cont..
• Figure bellow shows how it operates

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 5.Speed measurement
• A tachometer refers to any device used for measuring the
rotation of a shaft
• A tachometric generator is a machine which, when driven
by a rotating mechanical force, produces an electrical
output proportional to the speed of rotation.
• For measuring speed, tachometric generators are usually
connected to the rotating shaft.
6. Level Measurement
 Measurement and/or control of liquid level is an
important function in many industrial processes and in
more exotic applications, such as the operation and fueling
of large liquid fuel rocket motors
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 Cont…
• Figure bellow shows some of the common methods of
level measurement

Sight glass Capacitive level sensor

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 END

THANK U !

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