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merdisami798
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE


HUMANITIES
Department of Geography and Environmental
studies
Course Title : Geography of Ethiopia and The
Horn
(For Freshman undergraduate students)
By: Addisu Baye Chekole
2013 E.C
1
2
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
(3hrs)

3
1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes
1.1.1. Meaning of Geography
 Difficult to forward a definition acceptable to all
geographers at all times and places due to:
• Dynamic nature of the discipline
• Changes in its scope and method of study

 Accepted and a working definition is

• The scientific study of the Earth that describes and


analyses spatial and temporal variations of
physical, biological and human phenomena, and
their interrelationships and dynamism over the
surface of the Earth
4
1.1.2. Scope of Geography
Geography:
 Explains the arrangements of various natural and
cultural features on the earth surface
 Holistic and interdisciplinary field of study
contributing to the understanding of the changing
spatial structures from the past to the future
 Its scope is the surface of the earth, which is the
very thin zone that is the interface of the
• Atmosphere
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Biosphere 5
 Approached by considering two continuums

A. Human-physical continuum
B. Topical- regional continuum
 Topical (systematic) fields of Geography

• Categories of physical or human phenomena as


distributed over the earth

6
 Regional geography

• Concerned with the associations within regions of


all or some of the elements and their
interrelationships
• An area on earth's surface marked by a degree of
homogeneity of some phenomenon

7
1.1.3. Themes of Geography
Geography has five basic themes
Location
 Defined as a particular place or position
 Can be of two types:

A. Absolute location
• The location of a place is defined by its latitude
and longitude (specific geographic
coordinates) or its exact address

B. Relative location
• The position of something relative to another
landmark 8
Place
 The physical and human aspects of a location
 Associated with:
• Toponym: name of a place
• Site: description of the features of the place
• Situation: environmental conditions of the place
 Each place in the world has unique features that make
it different from the others expressed in terms of
• Landforms
• Hydrology
• Biogeography
• Pedology
• Characteristics and size of human population
• Distinct human cultures
 Aids geographers to compare and contrast two places
on Earth
9
Human-Environment Interaction
 Humans

• have always been on ceaseless interaction with


their natural environment
• No other species that has lived on our planet
has a profound effect on the environment as
humans
• have adapted to the environment in ways that
have allowed them to dominate all other
species on Earth.

10
 Involves three distinct aspects:

A. Dependency
 Ways in which humans are dependent on nature for
a living

B. Adaptation
 How humans modify themselves, their lifestyles and
their behavior to live in a new environment with
new challenges

C. Modification
 Allowed humans to “conquer” the world for their
comfortable living 11
Movement
 The study of transport and relocation of human
ideas, culture, habits, language and many more to
the different parts of the world
 Its aspects/dimension are the

• Physical movement of people

• Transport of goods from one place on the

earth to another
• Flow of ideas that allows:
o Unification of the human civilization
o Promotes its growth and prosperity 12
Region
A geographic area having distinctive
characteristics that distinguishes itself from
adjacent unit(s) of space
 Portions of earth's surface that have uniform
characteristics
 The places sharing common physical and human
features
 Could be a formal region and functional region

13
A. Formal region
 Characterized by homogeneity in terms of a certain
oNatural phenomenon: soil, temperature, rainfall
oCultural elements: language, religion and economy

 Characterized by human-centered properties, such


as a common
• Language
• Political system
• Physical properties
 Also known as a uniform or homogeneous region
 A nation is a formal region 14
B. Functional region
 Also be nodal region, a region organized around a
focal point
 Characterized by functional interrelationships in a
spatial system
 Region is tied to the central point by:

• Transportation systems
• Communication systems
• Economic or functional associations
 Example the circulation area of a newspaper
15
1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and
the Horn
Horn of Africa Countries
 A region of eastern Africa, is a narrow tip that protrudes
into the northern Indian ocean, separating it from the gulf
of Aden
 The easternmost extension of African land
 The region that is home to the countries whose cultures
have been linked throughout their long history which
includes:

• Djibouti
• Eritrea
• Ethiopia
16

• Somalia
 Although they share many common features, there is
also great diversity among them
 In terms of size from all the horn of African countries

• Ethiopia is the largest


• Djibouti is the smallest

 The horn contains such diverse areas as the


highlands of the
• Ethiopian plateau
• Ogden desert
• Eritrean and Somali coasts
17
 Its coasts are washed by the

• Red sea
• Gulf of Aden
• Indian ocean

 It has long been in contact with the

• Arabian peninsula
• Southwestern Asia

18
1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia
 The location of a country or a place on a map or a
globe is expressed in two different ways

1. Astronomical locations
 Also known as absolute or mathematical location
 States location of places using the lines of

• Latitudes
• Longitudes

19
 Astronomically, Ethiopia is a landlocked country
located between:
• 3oN (Moyale) to 15oN (Bademe - the northernmost
tip of Tigray) latitudes
• 33oE (Akobo) to 48oE(the tip of Ogden in the east)
longitudes
• The east-west distance (15o) is longer than the
north-south distance (120)

20
 The latitudinal and longitudinal extensions are
important in two ways
 First

• As a result of its latitudinal extension the country


experiences tropical climate
 Secondly
 Due to its longitudinal extension there is a
difference of one hour between the most easterly
and most westerly points of the country
 It is only for convenience that the 3 hours-time
21
zone is used in all parts of the country
2. Relative location
 Expresses the location of countries or places with
reference to the
• Location of other countries (vicinal)
• Relation of landmasses or water bodies

22
Table 1.1: The relative location of Ethiopia

Vicinal location In relation to water


bodies and land
masses
Sudan to the west and northwest In the Horn of Africa

Southwest of the Arabian Peninsula


South Sudan to southwest

Djibouti to the east South of Europe


Somalia to the east and southeast Northwest of the Indian Ocean

Eritrea to the north and northeast In the Nile Basin

Kenya to the south


23
24
 Implications of the location of Ethiopia are
described as follows:

A. Climate
• Ethiopia is located implies that the country has a
tropical climate, though modified by its altitude
• Ethiopia relative to the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic
Ocean and the African and Asian landmass has
also various bearings on the climate of Ethiopia

25
B. Socio-cultural
• Ethiopia is one of the earliest recipients of the
major world religions namely Christianity, Islam and
Judaism due to its proximity to the middle East,
which was the origin of these religions
• The linguistic and other cultural relationships,
which Ethiopia shares with its neighbors, reflect the
influence of location

26
C. Political
 The political history of Ethiopia has been considerably
influenced by:
• Geopolitical considerations of superpowers
• Adjacency to the red sea (a major global trade
route)
• The middle east geopolitical paradigms
 As a result, Ethiopia has been exposed for external
invasions in a number of times; though the country
resisted foreign intervention and remains free of
external domination 27
1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia

•A total area of approximately 1,106,000 square


kilometers
• 8th largest country in Africa
• 25th largest country in the world
• Extends about 1,639 kilometers east-west
• Extends 1,577 kilometers north-south
• About 0.7% of the country is covered by water bodies
• Its size also affects both the natural and human
environment of the country 28
Table 1.2: Advantages and disadvantages of
Ethiopia’s large size
Advantages Advantages
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Possess diverse agro Demands greater capital to
ecological zones construct infrastructural
facilities
Variety of natural resources Requires large army to
protect its territory
Own extensive arable land Difficult for effective
administration
Have larger population size Difficult for socio-economic
integration
Home for diverse cultures
Greater depth in defense
external
invasion
29
1.2.3. The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication
 Countries of the world have different kinds of shape
that can be divided into five main categories:
• Compact
• Fragmented
• Elongated
• Perforated
• Protruded
 These shapes have implications on
• Defense
• Administration
• Economic integration within a country
 Whether some kind of shape is advantageous to a
country or not, however, depends on many other
factors
30
 Compact shape countries

• The distance from the geographic center of the state to


any of the borders does not vary greatly like Poland
• It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural
integration
 Elongated shape countries

• They are geographically long and relatively narrow like


Norway and Chile
 Fragmented shape countries

• They are divided from their other parts by either water,


land or other countries like Philippines, Indonesia, and Fiji
31
 Protrude shape countries

• Countries that have one portion that is much more


elongated than the rest of the country like
Myanmar, Thailand and Eritrea
 Perforated shape countries

•A country that completely surrounds another


country like the republic of South Africa

32
 There are various ways of measuring shape of countries

 Indices of compactness

• Measure the deviation of the shape of a country from


a circular shape, which is the most compact shape
• There is no country with absolutely circular shape,
those approximating a circular shape are said to be
more compact
• There are four most commonly used measures of
compactness.
• These are:

33
1. The ratio of area of country to its boundary length:
• Area-Boundary ratio
• The higher the A/B ratio, the greater the degree of
compactness
2.The ratio of boundary length of a country to the
circumference of a circle having the same area as
the country itself:
• Boundary-circumference ratio
• Measures how far the boundary of a country
approximates the circumference of a circle of its own
size.
• The nearer the ratio to 1 the more compact the country
is 34
3.The ratio of the area of the country to the
circumference of the smallest inscribing circle:
• Area-circumference ratio
• Compares the area of the country with the
circumference of a circle that passes touching the
extreme points on the boundary of the country
• The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of
compactness

35
4. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the
smallest possible inscribing circle:
• Area-area (A/A’) ratio
• The area of the inscribing circle is the area of the
smallest possible circle whose circumference passes
through the extreme points on the boundary
• Half-length of the longest distance between two
extreme points gives radius of the inscribing circle
• The nearer the ratio to 1, the more compact the
country is.
36
Table 1.3: Ethiopia's shape compared to its neighbors in the Horn

Country Area Boundary A/B B/C ratio A/C ratio


(km2) (km) ratio

Ethiopia 1,106,000 5,260 210.27 1.41 296.61

Djibouti 22,000 820 26.83 1.56 41.83

Eritrea 117,400 2,420 48.51 1.99 96.83

Kenya 582,644 3,600 161.85 1.33 215.28

Somalia 637,657 5,100 125.03 1.80 225.22

37
1.3. Basic Skills of Map Reading
What is a Map
 A two-dimensional scaled representation of part or
whole of the Earth surface on a flat body
 Map reading encompasses a systematic identification
of natural features and manmade features
• Natural features: mountains, plateaus, hills,
valleys, river, ocean, rocks, plain etc.
• Manmade features: roads, railway, buildings, dam
etc.

38
 A special significance for geographers as primary
tools for displaying and analyzing spatial
• Distributions
• Patterns
• Relations
 Since these features cannot easily be observed and
interpreted in real landscapes, maps are essential to
geographers

39
Importance of maps

• Provide geographical details of regions represented


• Powerful tools for making spatial analysis of
geographical facts
• Useful for giving location of geographical features
• Used on various disciplines
• Storage of the geographical data
• Potentially used to asses’ reliable measurements of
the geographical features such as area, size,
distance etc
40
Types of Map

 There are many types of maps according to their purpose


and functions

A. Topographical maps
• Depict one or more natural and cultural features of an
area
• Could be small, medium or large scale depending on the
size of the area represented
• Contents of topographical maps depend on
• Purpose of a map
• Scale of a map
• Date of compilation
• Nature of the land represented 41
B. Special purpose/statistical maps
 Show distribution of different aspects such as

• Temperature
• Rainfall
• Settlement
• Vegetation etc.

42
Marginal Information on Maps (Elements of Maps)

• Shown on a map to enable the reading and


interpretation of the geographical information of an
area represented.
• This includes:

A. Title
• Heading of the given map which tells what the map is
all about

B. Key (legend)
• List of all convectional symbols and signs shown on the
map with their interpretation 43
C. Scale
• Ratio between the distance on the map and the actual
ground distance
• Enable the map user to interpret the ground
measurement like road distance, areal sizes, gradient etc.
• Expressed as representative fraction, statements/verbal
scale, and linear (graphic) scale

D. North arrow
• Indicated with the north direction on a map
• Used to know the other important directions of the
mapped area like east, west, south, and west
44
E. Margin
• The frame of the map
• Important for showing the end of the mapped area

F. Date of compilation
• Date of map publication
• Enables map users to realize whether the map is
updated or outdated

45
1.3.1. Basic Principles of Map Reading
 In developing map reading abilities and skills, certain
basic principles must be applied by the map-reader to
translate map symbols into landscape images
• Map readers must have ideas about the symbol
• Every map symbol must be visualized by the reader
• Symbols refer to landscape features and
knowledge of directions

46
 Maps are covered in a series of lines that make up a
grid
 The lines allow you to accurately pinpoint your
location on a map
 Grid system

• Give an accurate description of your location.


• This description, which will be a series of numbers,
is known as a grid reference

47
UNIT TWO
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(4hr)

48
2.1. Introduction
Geology
 An Earth science that studies

• Evolution of the earth


• Materials of which it is made of
• Processes acting upon them
• How earth's materials, structures, processes and organisms
have changed over time
 Also concerned with events that took place in the remote past

 A great deal of geological understanding must, therefore, be


obtained by inference, using clues from what can be
• Seen
49
• Measured
 Clues are not only the rocks and landforms which can be
observed and studied directly but also those provided by
indirect methods such as:
 Geophysics

• Studying earthquake waves which can penetrate


deep beneath the Earth's surface
 Geochemistry

• Analysis of the detailed composition of rocks which


can give clues as to their origin
 Geochronology

• Methods for finding the ages of rocks, usually from


the radioactive elements they contain 50
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
 Was a German scientist and meteorologist
 He believed that the continents are moving
 He is most notable for his theory of “continental drift”,
which he proposed in 1912
 He believed that the earth's continents were once
bunched up/assembled together in to a single huge
continent called Pangaea
 Continental drift means

• The continents have drifted and moved apart


• Continents were slowly drifting around the earth 51
Pangaea
 A Greek term which means “all the earth or entire
earth”
 Supercontinent that existed 250 million years ago
 All continents were once joined together in a single
landmass (supercontinent)
 Existed during Paleozoic and early Mesozoic era
 Began to break apart about 200 million years ago
 Divided in to Gondwanaland and Laurasia

52
 Gondwanaland includes
• Africa
• South America
• India
• Antarctica
• Australia

 Laurasia includes Eurasia that is


• Europe
• Asia
• North America
 Subsequently fragmented and the pieces now accounts for
53
Alfred Wegener’s evidence (principles)

 The apparent fit of the continents

• The costliness of the continents appear to fit


together like the pieces of puzzle
• Example: the coastlines of eastern America and the
coastlines of western Africa

54
 Fossil correlation

• Identical fossils had been found in the rocks on


either side of the oceans
• Example: Evidence of life…fossils of entire
creatures where they are located…ancient
freshwater reptiles only found in two places:
southern tip of south America and southern tip of
Africa

55
 Rock and mountain correlation

• Identical rocks and mountain structures have been


found on either side of the oceans
• Geological structure (rock structure)…fossil
distribution with rock distribution
• Example: mountains of NE united states have
exact type and age of rocks with mountains of UK
and Northern Scandinavian

56
 Palo climate data ( past climate data)

• Coal has been found in colder regions and glacial


evidence has been found in warm regions
• Evidence of glaciers: when glaciers move on the
surface of the earth, they live evidence behind in
the form of glacial striations in deep scratches in
the rock that shows the direction of ice move that
dragged over the surface

57
Example-1: In Amazon rainforest in equator of South
American countries and stick jungles of central Africa
• In the past these places were located closer to the
poles where colder climate that supports glacier,
but today, because of they are too close to equator
and getting sun light, the places are too intense and
hot

Example -2: Bituminous coal, sedimentary rock, that is


made from compacted and sediment plant remains,
tropical plant remains, from hot sticky humid jungles
58
which is found in Northern Asia and Antarctica
2.2: Geological Process
 Geological processes are divided into two major groups:
A. Internal processes
 Also called endogenic forces
 Include
• Volcanic activity and all the tectonic
processes of
• Folding
• Faulting
• Orogenesis (mountain building)
• Epeirogenesis
• Slow rising and sinking of the landmass
• Result in building of structural and volcanic
features like
• Plateaus
• Rift valleys
• Block mountains
59
• Volcanic mountains, etc.
B. External process
 Also called exogenic forces
 They are geomorphic processes
 Include
• Weathering
• Mass transfer
• Erosion and
• Deposition
 Act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by
• Modifying
• Roughening
• Lowering them down

60
In Ethiopia
 Ethiopia's land mass is result of the combined effect
both processes
 Geological history of Ethiopia and the horn will be
dealt chronologically starting from the oldest era of
the earth's history to the recent

61
2.3. Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques

 Geological history is divided in to eras


 Each era is divided into periods
 The eras are given names that indicate the kind of life
that existed in them
• Paleozoic Era (ancient life): the age of
invertebrates
• Mesozoic Era (the middle life): the age of reptiles
• Cenozoic Era (recent life): the age of mammals
 Earth is believed to have been formed approximately
4.5 billion years ago
 The earliest forms of life were thought to have
originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago

62
Geological time scale
 Describe the geology and history of life on earth
 Divisions basically differ from each other in such
characteristics as
• Relative position of land and sea
• Kind of climate
• Kind of animal and plant life that
developed and existed
 Difficult to measure precisely
 Do not usually consist of a uniform length of time
 Built largely on the basis of life and evolution
 Measures time on a scale involving four main units
 Division of time units is usually based on the
occurrence of significant geological events (example:
mass extinctions)
63
 Eon

• Largest period of geological time

 Eras

• Periods are combined to make subdivisions

 Periods

• Epochs are clumped together into larger units

 Epoch

• Smallest unit of time on the scale


• Encompasses a period of millions of years
64
65
Age Dating Techniques
 Two techniques of knowing the age of rocks:

A. Relative Dating
 Uses geological evidence to assign comparative ages of
fossils
 Use two ways to know the relative age of a rock

• One way-look at any fossils the rock may contain


• Second way is to use the "what is on top of the
older rocks?
 But these two methods only give the relative age of
rocks -which one is younger and which is older 66
B. Absolute Dating
 Determining the actual age of rock/ fossil using
radioactive decay
 Age of a rock in years
 Determine the absolute age (exact age) of rock
using radiometric dating
 Geologists find absolute ages by measuring the
amount of certain radioactive elements in the
rock
• When rocks are formed, small amounts of
radioactive elements usually get included
• As time passes, the "parent" radioactive elements
change at a regular rate into non-radioactive
"daughter" elements.
• Thus the older a rock is the larger the number of
daughter elements and the smaller the number of
parent elements are found in the rock
67
 At the end of the period constituting one half-life, half of
the original quantity of radioactive element has decayed;
after another half-life, half of what was left is halved
again, leaving one-fourth of the original, and so on
 Two of the major techniques include:

A. Carbon-14 Technique
 Upon the organism's death, carbon-14 begins to
disintegrate at a known rate, and no further
replacement of carbon from atmospheric carbon
dioxide can take place
 Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years 68
B. Potassium-Argon Technique
 The decay is widely used for dating rocks
 Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in
this way, because potassium-40 is abundant in
micas, feldspars, and hornblendes.
 Leakage of argon is a problem if the rock has been
exposed to temperatures above 125° C (257° F),
because the age of the rock will then reflect the last
episode of heating rather than the time of original
rock formation
69
2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms
of Ethiopia and the Horn

2.4.1.Precambrian Era Geologic Processes


 Span of time before life appeared
 From 4.5 billion - 600 million years ago
 Covers 5/6th of the earth's history
 Limited knowledge of the events due to:
• Its remoteness in time
• Absence of well-preserved fossils
 Major geologic event was orogenesis
• Intense folding
• Intrusive igneous activity…when magma cools slowly
below earth’s surface
• Formation of huge mountain ranges 70
 In between the orogenic periods and after the last
orogenesis:
• Long periods of denudation……reduces mountains to
near-level (pene-plained)….was later covered by
younger rock formations
 Ethiopia rocks belonging to this Era are found beneath all
other rocks, forming the basement rocks
 Rocks had been subjected to

• Pressure and heat from overlying weight


• Earth movements (folding, orogenesis)
• Intrusive igneous activity 71
 Then, the original rocks (both sedimentary and
igneous) were altered into metamorphic rocks of
varying stages of metamorphism
 The processes have allowed mineralization and crystal
formation,
 The rocks are also collectively described as crystalline
rocks
 The Precambrian rocks are overlaid by recent rock
formations

72
 Precambrian rocks covering 25% of the land mass of
Ethiopia found in the following areas:
A. Northern part
• Western lowlands, parts of northern and central Tigray

B. Western part
• Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel and Asossa),
western Gojjam, western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay
gorge
C. Southern part
• Guji, southern Omo, and parts of southern Bale and Borena

D. Eastern part
• Eastern Hararghe
73
2.4.2. Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes
 From 600 - 225 million years ago
 Lasted for about 375 million years
 Major geological process was denudation
 Denudation: collective process of:

• Weathering-breaking down of rocks


• Mass movement-transfer of rocks
due to gravity
• Erosion-removals of materials

74
 Gigantic mountains that were formed by the
precambrian orogeny were
• Subjected to intense and prolonged
denudation
• Reduced to a “pene-plained” surface
 The sediments were transported

• Southward-to form continental (in Africa)


• Eastward- for marine deposits
 Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia,
rocks belonging to this Era are rare in the country
75
2.4.3. Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes
 From 225-70 million years ago
 Lasted for about 155 million years
 Major geological process was slows sinking and
rising (epeirogenesis) of the landmass
 Epeirogenesis affected the whole present-day

• Horn of Africa
• Arabian landmass

76
 Land was tilted eastward and therefore

• Lower in the southeast


• Higher in the northwest
 As the land sank slowly, the sea invaded it starting from
Somalia and Ogaden and slowly spreading northwestward
 This was in late Triassic and continued up to Jurassic
period
 Mesozoic rocks are considered to have the greatest potential
for oil and gas deposits
 Through time, overlying rocks and by cementing minerals
compacted to form sandstone and limestone layers
77
respectively
 These are known as the Adigrat sand stone and

Hintalo limestone layers


 Due to epeirogenesis, the regression of the sea began

in the Upper Jurassic and continued throughout

cretaceous period
 In the country sedimentation ended with the

deposition of clay, silt, sand conglomerate that were

laid over the Hintalo limestone

78
 By the end of the Mesozoic Era, when the land emerged out of the

sea, three major sedimentary formations were laid and formed upon

the precambrian rock:


• Adigrat sand stone -lower sandstone
• Hintalo limestone
• Upper Sandstone-uppermost layer
 Age and thickness of the sandstone layers vary in a southeast -

Northwest direction due to:


 Tilting of the landmass during the transgression and regression of

the sea
 The direction of the invading and retreating sea

79
 Therefore,
 Adigrat sandstone is

• Older and thicker in the southeast


• Decreases in age and thickness
northwestward
• Upper sandstone is
• Thicker and younger in the southeast
• Older and thinner northwest

80
 The transgressing sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly
covered the whole of Ethiopia
 In most parts of Ethiopia, the Mesozoic rocks are
overlaid by the Cenozoic rocks
 The old marine sediments are extensively found in the
Southeast lowlands
 The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the land
mass of the country

81
Figure 2.1. Geological map of Ethiopia

82
2.4.4. Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes
From 70 million years ago - present
 The most recent of the geologic Eras
 Major geological events were tectonic and volcanic
activities that making of the present-day landmass of
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa
 The land was subjected to three major geologic
events
 These geologic activities are
• Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and
outpouring of huge quantity of lava
• Formation of the Rift Valley
• Quaternary volcanism and deposition 83
A.Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and
outpouring of lava flood
• A continuation of the slow rise that began in the
upper jurassic and cretaceous periods
• Uplifting continued to the paleocene and oligocene
epoch of the tertiary period
• Greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia (up to 2,000
m.a.s.l)
• Occurred during the eocene epoch
• Was of an epeirogenic character
• This immense tectonic force---fractured the crust…
Huge quantity of lava came out….widely and
extensively covered a large part of:
• Ethiopian plateau surface
• Floor of the present-day rift valley
84
 The mass of lava formed many and huge volcanic
mountains‟ towering the flat basaltic plateau
 This volcanic material is known as Trappean lava or
Trap Series lava that is
• Not dissected by erosion
• Makes the Ethiopian plateau had flat and nearly
horizontal
 This is an expression of the

• Pene-planed precambrian surfaces


• The smothering effect of the mesozoic deposition
• The spreading of the trap series lava over the
mesozoic sediments
85
B. Formation of the rift valley
• Related with the theory of plate tectonics
• Formed when tension widened the fractures, the
central part of the landmass collapsed to form
an extensive structural depression
 Plate tectonics
 Lateral movement of the crust in opposite
directions producing tensional forces that caused
parallel fractures or faults on the sides of the up-
arched swell
86
Figure 2.2.The Ethiopian and East African Rift Valley systems

87
Major faulting movement

• Began in the late oligocene and miocene epochs


of the Cenozoic era
• Affecting the whole African rift system, including
that of Ethiopia and the gulf of Aden
• Red sea and the gulf of Aden were connected
• Afar depression was down-faulted
• Danakil Depression and the Red Sea was uplifted
to form the Afar Block Mountains

88
Great East African Rift
 Extends from palestine-jordan in the north to
malawi-mozambique in the south
 A distance of about 7,200 kilometers
 5,600 kilometers is in Africa
 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea and Ethiopia
 Widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle
(200-300 km)

89
 Afar Triangle
 Also called afar depression
 Its northern part is Danakil depression…hottest
place in the world
 Bordered by:

• Ethiopian plateau-west
• Red sea-North east
• Somalia plateau-South

90
 The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African
System meet and form the triangular depression of
the Afar
 The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the separation
of the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa also
took place during the Tertiary period

91
 Rift Valley region of Ethiopian
• The most unstable part of the country
• Numerous hot springs, fumorales, active volcanoes,
geysers, and frequent earthquakes
• Formation of the rift valley has the following structural
(physiographic) effects:
• Divides the Ethiopian plateau into two
• Separates the Arabian landmass from African
landmass
• Causes the formation of the dead sea, red sea and
the gulf of Aden troughs
• Creates basins and fault depressions on which the
rift valley lakes are formed 92
C. Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• Recent volcanic activities that took place after the
formation of the rift valley
• Occurred in the pliocene-pleistocene epochs
• A continuation of the tectonic and volcanic processes
• Renewed rifting/faulting and more volcanism
• Occurred in the floor of the rift valley and the region
south of lake Tana
• Aden volcanic and recent faulting are more
extensively developed in the afar region
• Aden volcanic have relatively well-preserved and visible
morphological features 93
 The basic volcanic features of the Aden series
include:-
• Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones
• Example:
• Dubi
• Aftera
• Erta Ale--the most active volcano in Ethiopia
• Volcanic hills and mountains
• Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama
• Aletu north of Lake Ziway
• Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc
• Extensive lava fields and lava sheets.
• Lava ridges
• Thermal springs, fumaroles etc
94
Quaternary Deposition
 In quaternary period of the Cenozoic era

• Earth experienced a marked climatic change


• Time of the last ‟ice age‟ in the middle and
high latitude
• Time of the “pluvial rains” in Africa

95
 Pluvial rains---relatively high precipitation

• Eroded the Ethiopian plateau


• Eroded materials were deposited in the rift valley lakes
• Resulted in an excessive surface flow; rivers were
many and large
• Carried a lot of water and sediments
• Lake and marshy areas became numerous and deep
• For example, Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa-Shallo;
Chamo-Abaya; and Lake Abe and the nearby smaller
lakes and marsh basins formed huge lakes

96
 After the “Pluvial Rains‟

• Earth's climate became warmer and drier


• Increased the rate of evaporation
• Diminished the sizes of the lakes
• Today, lacustrine deposits in many of the Ethiopian
lakes, river valleys and lowlands
 Deposits are divided as follow.
A. Lacustrine deposits: lakebeds, and swampy
depressions
B. Fluvial deposits: on the banks of rivers
C. Glacio-fluvial deposits : occurred on high
mountains
D. Aeolian deposits: windblown deposits 97
 Quaternary deposits are mainly found in

• Rift valley (afar and lakes region)


• Baro lowlands
• Southern borena
• Parts of northwestern low lands

 Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land mass of the


country that include
 Highland tertiary volcanic (basalt…hard and black
volcanic rock)
 Tertiary as well as quaternary volcanic
98
2.5. Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia

 Abundant mineral resources


 Its is associated with the Precambrian rocks
 A great variety of such minerals occur in the basement
rocks
 Rocks contain most of the metallic deposits known at
present
 Taking place for the past 2,000 years
 Gold production and utilization has become part of
Ethiopia's history, tradition and folklore
 However, presently mineral production from Ethiopia has
99
been negligible by world standards
2.5.1. Brief Facts and Current State of Main
Minerals in Ethiopia
 Gold

• Mined for quite long time


• Mainly from benishangul-gumuz (metekel) and adola

 Platinum

• Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian


Platinum mine
 Tantalum
• Found in southern ethiopia
• It occurs in adola area where kenticha
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in
• Nedjo (wellega) 100
 Tantalum

• Found in southern Ethiopia


• It occurs in adola area where kenticha
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in
• Nedjo (wellega)
• Small amounts in chilga (Gondar)

101
 Gemstones

• Occur in many parts of Ethiopia, mainly in


• Amhara Regional States
• Oromia Regional States
 Quality Opal was first discovered by local people in
Wadla and Dalanta woredas, North Wello in Amhara
Regional State
 Potash

• Reserve in the danakil (dallol depression) of the


afar region
102
 Gypsum and Anhydrite

• Produced for domestic consumption


• Occur in sedimentary formations of the
• Red sea coastal area
• Danakil depression
• Ogaden, shewa, gojjam, tigray, and hararghe

 Marble

• Found in
• West of mekelle
• South of Adwa in Tigray 103
 Clay

• Ethiopia is endowed with industrial clay material


• Alluvial clay occur in
• Adola area
• Abay gorge
• Rift Valley lakes region
• Ceramic clay found at
• Ambo
• Adola

104
 Construction stones

• Include important building stones such as


• Basalt
• Granite
• Limestone
• Sandstone
• Found in
• Muger valley
• Abay gorge (dejen)
• Tigray (messebo)
105
2.5.2. Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia
 Most mineral potentials of Ethiopia includes three major
greenstone belts
1. The Western and South-western-greenstone
belt
 Contain various minerals: primary gold occurrences
such as
• Dul,Tulu-Kape
• Oda-Godere
• Akobo
• Baruda
• Bekuji-Motish
106
• Kalaj
2. The Southern greenstone belt
 Known as the adola belt
 Comprises the primary gold deposits and
occurrences of
• Lega-dembi
• Sakaro
• Wellena
• Kumudu
• Megado-Serdo
• Dawa Digati
• Moyale
• Ababa River
107
3. The Northern greenstone belt (Tigray)
• Comprises of the primary gold occurrences of
• Terakemti
• Adi-zeresenay
• Nirague

108
UNITE THREE
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(3hrs)

109
3.1. INTRODUCTION

 The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by


the geologic activities of the Cenozoic Era
 The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell and the
subsequent outpouring, spreading and thick
accumulation of Trapean lava have given rise to an
outward sloping highland plateau and mountains
 The major faulting resulted in the division of the
plateau into two broad units and the formation of a
great structural valley

110
 Faulting elsewhere and on the floor guided part of the
course of some rivers
 They also formed depressions on which lakes were
subsequently created
 Geomorphic processes brought some modification to
the structural landform by river dissection and
roughening on the highlands, and deposition on the
lower areas

111
General Characteristics of the Ethiopian
Physiography
 Ethiopian landform is characterized by great
diversity
 There are

• Flat-topped plateaus
• High and rugged mountains
• Deep river gorges
• Vast plains

112
 Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level
(Kobar Sink) to the highest mountain in Ethiopia,
Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l), which is the
fourth highest mountain in Africa
 Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated
landmass in the African continent
 It is sometimes described as the Roof of East Africa
because of its height and large area

113
 More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000
meters of elevation; and above 1,500 meters makes 44% of
the country
 Half of this, in turn, is at more than 2,000 meters above sea
level
 Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and
northern Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion extends into
Eritrea
 The highland core, on the other hand, is encircled by semi-
arid and lowlands
 The Ethiopian Highlands are rugged mass of mountains,
situated in the Horn of Africa 114
 They are the most significant physical features of the
country, which form the largest continuous area of its
elevation in the continent
 They have been dissected by several rivers and
ravines which have cut deep gorges
 They have been divided into several regions and
mountain systems
 Most of the country consists of high plateau and
mountain ranges that are sources of many rivers and
streams that made the country to be described as the
“Water Tower of East Africa” 115
 The diversity in topography is accompanied by
differences in other natural features such as soil,
climate, vegetation and wild life
 Likewise, the socio-cultural and economic phenomena
are also affected by the topography
 Taking the 1,000 meters contour line for the
highland-lowland demarcation, one observes the
following contrasting features between the Ethiopian
highlands and lowlands 116
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands
 Moderate and high amount of rainfall (>600 mm
per year)
 Lower mean annual temperature (<200C)
 The climate is favorable for biotic life
 Rain-fed agriculture is possible
 Free from tropical diseases
 Attractive for human habitation and densely settled

117
 The cumulative effect of all this is that, the highlands
have been significant throughout Ethiopian history in
the economic, cultural and political life of the people
 These highlands make up nearly 56% of the area of the
Ethiopia
 This is further subdivided into

• Lower highland (1,000 - 2,000 m.a.s.l), which


make up 35%
• Higher highland (>2,000 m.a.s.l) constituting nearly
22%
118
 In contrast to the highlands, the remaining 44% of the
Ethiopian lowlands are characterized by:
• Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher
temperature
• High prevalence of tropical diseases
• Lower population densities
• Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life
• Vast plain lands favorable for irrigation
agriculture along the lower river basins

119
3.2. The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia

 Structural divisions by the geologic processes of the


Cenozoic Era
 Three major physiographic

1. The Western highlands and lowlands

2. The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and


lowlands

3. The Rift Valley

120
3.2.1. Western Highlands and Lowlands
 All the area west of the Rift Valley

 Nearly the whole western half of Ethiopia

 Makeup 44% of the area of the country

 Subdivided into

• Four groups of highlands (76.3%)


• Four groups of lowlands (23.7%)

121
1. The Western Highlands
A. Tigray Plateau
 Extends tekeze gorge (S) to central Eritrean HLs
 Separated from the Eritrean plateau by the mereb
river
 Lies to the

• Southeast of mereb/gash river


• Northeast of tekeze river gorge

122
 Constitutes 13% of the area of the region
 Highlands b/n 1,000-2,000 m.a.s.l
 Features of:

• Granite hills
• Rugged topography
• Ambas: steep-sided, flat-topped mountain
surrounded by farmland

123
 High mountains over 3000 meters:

• Mount Tsibet (3988 m.a.s.l)


• Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l)
• Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l)
• Debre-Damo:
• Famous monastery
• Tableland climbed only by a rope
pulley

124
Figure 3.1. Ethiopian Topography

125
B. North Central Massifs
 Largest in the western HLs
 Follows the Abay and Tekeze gorges
 Plateau and tablelands are still capped by the
Trappean lava
 Its central part accommodates:

• Lake Tana basin


• Plains of Fogera and Dembia

126
• Consists of the Gonder, Wello and Gojjam Massifs
• Most popular mountains:
• Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l)
• Weynobar/Ancua (4462 m.a.s.l)
• KidisYared (4453 m.a.s.l)
• Bwahit (4437 m.a.s.l) in Simen Mountain System
• Guna (4,231 m.a.s.l) in the Debre Tabour Mountain System
• Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the Lasta highlands of
Wello
• Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the Choke Mountain System in
Gojjam

127
 These mountains have:

• Steep cliffs
• Rugged terrain

 Gonder and Gojjam are

• Separated from wello by impenetrable and deep


gorges
• Connected by yeju-wadla delanta land bridge
• Woreta-debre tabor-woldya road constructed
to link the northwestern region with asseb through
woldya and dessie 128
C. Shewa Plateau/Central highlands
 Bounded by:

• Rift Valley in the east and southeast


• Abay gorge in its northern and western
• Omo gorge in the south and west
 Occupies a central geographical position in Ethiopia
 Smallest of the Western HLs
 Only 11% of the area of the whole physiographic region
 Drained by Abay, Omo and Awash
 Highest mountain:

• Abuye-Meda (4,000 m.a.s.l) in Northern Shewa


• Guraghe (3,721 m.a.s.l ) in the south 129
D. Southwestern Highlands
 Consists of the highlands of:
• Wellega
• Illuababora
• Jimma
• Kaff
• Gamo and Gofa
 Separated from the adjacent highlands by:
• Abay river valley
• Omo river valley
 Extends from the Abay gorge in the N
To
Kenya border and Chew Bahir in
the S
 Accounts for 22.7% of the area of the region
 Second largest in the Western HLs
 About 70% of its area is lies within 1,000-2,000 m
130
altitude
 The wettest in Ethiopia

 Drained by:

• Dabus, Deddessa, rivers


• Baro, Akobo rivers
• Ghibe/Omo rivers

 Accommodates the most numerous and diverse ethnic


linguistic groups in Ethiopia
 Highest peak:

• Guge Mountain (4,200 m.a.s.l)

131
2. Western Lowlands
 Western foothills and border plains
 Extend from Western Tigray in the N to southern
Gamo-Gofa in the S
 Make 11% of the area of the physiographic region
 Ranges between 500 and 1000 m.a.s.l
 Subdivided into Four:
• Tekeze lowland
• Abay-Dinder lowland
• Baro lowland
• Ghibe lowland
• Except baro lowland, it characterized by arid or
semi-arid conditions 132
 Economic activities:

• Pastoral or semi-pastoral-dominate
• Irrigation agriculture is highly feasible
• Mechanized agriculture

 Small but important towns:

• Humera
• Metema
• Omedla
• Kurmuk
• Gambella
133
 Ghibe/Omo lowland

• Includes:
• Lower ghibe/omo valley
• Northern section of the turkana basin
• Geographical, it is classified in the western
lowlands
• But Structurally, it also belongs to the rift valley
• Faulted and tectonically depressed area

134
3.2.2. Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
 Second largest physiographic region in terms of
area
 Accounts for 37% of the area of Ethiopia:

• Highlands (46%)
• Lowland (54%)
 Subdivided:

• Two units of highlands


• Two units of extensive lowlands

135
1. Southeastern Highlands

A. Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands
 Found to the east of the Lakes Region
 Located in the south western section
 Make up:

• 28.5% of the area of the region


• 62% of the south - Eastern HLs
 Made up of:

• Flat rolling uplands


• Dissected mountains 136
 Well-known mountains:

• Kaka (4,180 m.a.s.l)


• Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l)

• Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l)


 Dissected by rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale
along with their tributaries

137
Sof Omar cave

• Found near Bale Mountains


• World's most spectacular and extensive
underground
• Cut by Web River, tributary of Ghenale through
the Mesozoic Limestone rocks

138
Bale highlands
 Separated from the Arsi highlands by the head and main
stream of Wabishebelle
 Consist of:

• Basaltic plateau in the north-central part


• High mountain massif to the south
 Highest mountain peaks:

• Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l)


• Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l)
 Modified by Erosion features belonging to Pleistocene
glaciation
 Important grains producing areas with still high potential
139
Arsi highlands
 Afro-Alpine summit of Senetti plateau is found on
the Arsi highlands
 Modified by fluvial processes:

• Gorges
• Hanging valleys
• Depressions
 Important grains producing areas with still high
potential

140
Sidama Highlands
 Separated from the Bale Highlands by the Ghenale
river valley
 Occupy the southwestern corner of this region
 Prominent feature: Jemjem plateau
 Important coffee growing area

141
B. Hararghe Plateau
 A north-easterly extension of the south-eastern HLs
 Extends from: Chercher highlands in SW

to
Jigjiga in East
 Makes up:

• 38% of the SE highlands


• 17.4% of the whole physiographic region
 A low lying and elongated region
 Highest mountain: Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l) 142
2. Southeastern Lowlands
 Located in the southeastern part of the country
 The most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia
 Make up:

• 54% of the area of the physiographic region


• 1/5 th of the country
 Sub-divided:

• Wabishebelle plain (60%)


• Ghenale Plain (40%)

143
• Include the plains of:
• Ogaden
• Elkere
• Borena
• Interrupted by:
• Low hills
• Low ridges
• Inselbergs: small mountain
• Shallow river valleys
• Broad river valleys
144
• Depressions
 Due to harsh climatic conditions:
• Little used
• Support very small population
• Sparsely inhabited
• Pastoral and semi-pastoral
communities
 The economic potential:
• Animal husbandry
• Irrigation
• Agriculture
• Exploitation of petroleum and natural
gas

145
3.2.3. Rift Valley
 A tectonically formed structural depression
 Bounded by two major and more or less parallel
escarpments
 Separated the Ethiopian Highlands and Lowlands in to two
• Extends from: Afar triangle in N
to
Chew Bahir in S
 About 1,700 km2
 Covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia
 Elongated and funnel shaped, with a NE-SW orientation
 Opens out:
• Afar Triangle, the widest
• Narrows down to the south

146
 Its climate varies from warm, hot and dry to cool and
moderately moist conditions due to:
• Altitudinal variation
• Positional differences

 Desolate and sparsely inhabited by pastoralists and


some people practice some rain-fed agriculture
 Subdivided into three:

• Afar triangle
• Main Ethiopian rift
• Chew bahir rift 147
Floor of Rift Valley
 Made up of interconnected:
• Troughs: elongated& low pressure
region
• Grabens: valley with distinct
escarpment
• Depressions: sunken landform
 Covered by:
• Volcanic rocks
• fluvial deposits
• lacustrine deposits
 Altitude ranges from:
• 125 m.b.s.l at Dallol Depression
• 2,000 m.a.s.l in the Lakes region

148
A. Afar Triangle
 The largest and widest part of the rift valley
 Makes up 54% of the rift valley area
 Bounded by:
• High western escarpments in W
• Eastern escarpments in the E
• Afar and Aisha Horst in the NE
 Generally of low altitude (300-700 m)
 Quite different is the morphology of the Afar
depression, triangular-shape lowland
 Elevation drops uniformly from SW to N
 In E, the shores of Lake Asal, fluctuating 125 m.b.s.l,
represent the lowest sub aerial point of the African
continent
149
 Characterized by:
• Faulted depressions (grabens)
• Volcanic hills
• Active volcanoes
• Volcanic ridges
• Lava fields
• Low lava platforms
• Lakes (abe, asale, and afrera)
 Generally hot and dry
 Economic importance:
• Salt extraction
• Irrigation along the Awash River
• Electric potential from geothermal energy
• A prominent feature: Danakil Depression (Kobar
Sink)
150
 Danakil Depression (Kobar Sink)
• The most hostile environments on Earth
• Max. temp. can exceed 50°C during the summer
wet season
• Located in Dallol, at the northern tip of Afar
• Separated from the red Sea by a 200 meters high
land barrier much of it lies below sea level
• Its larger part covered by thick and extensive salt
plain
• Lake Asale and Afrera occupy the lowest parts of
151
this sunken depression
B. Main Ethiopian Rift/Central Rift
• Narrow belt of the RV that extends from: Awash River in the
N
to
Lake Chamo
in the S
• Bounded by the western and eastern escarpments
• Except of the Arbaminch area, escarpments are generally
low
• The narrowest and the highest
• Average width of 50-80 kilometers
• General elevation of 1,000-2,000 m.a.s.l
• The floor is dotted by:
• Cinder cones
• Volcanic mountains
• The big ones:
• Mount Fentale
• Boseti-guda (near Adama)
• Aletu (north of Lake Ziway) 152

• Chebi (north of Lake Hawasa)


 Prominent features are numerous lakes formed on
tectonic sags and fault depressions
 Lakes are generally milder and watery

 Here rain-fed agriculture is practiced

 Other resource bases include:

• Recreational value of the lakes


• Agricultural importance of some streams and
lakes
• Geothermal energy potential

153
III. Chew Bahir Rift
 The smallest and the southern-most part of the rift
valley
 Separated from main Ethiopian rift by
Gneissic(metamorphic type of rock) highlands of
Konso
 Characterized by:
• Broad and shallow depression
• Marshy area covered by tall grass
• Segen and woito streams empty

154
3.3. The Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and
Socioeconomic Conditions

 Highly dissected character influence the various


socioeconomic aspects of Ethiopia
1. Agricultural practices
 Relief influences: farm size and shape
Small in size and fragmented
• Choice of farming techniques and farm implements
• Crop production:
• Higher altitudes crops (barley, wheat…..)
• Low altitude crops (sorghum, maize…..)
• Practice of animal husbandry:
• Higher altitudes (equines and sheep..)
• Lower altitudes (camels and goat…)
155
2. Settlement pattern
 Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the
development of settlement and its expansion
 Highlands of Ethiopia
• Temperate type of climatic condition
• Mainly free from most of the tropical diseases
• Densely settled
• Sedentary life
• Permanent settlements
 Lowlands of Ethiopia
• Inhabited by pastoralists
• Sparsely settled
• Temporary settlements

156
3. Transportation and communication
 Highly dissected nature

• Barrier to the development of internal surface


transportation
• Resulted in the long-term isolation of many communities
• Makes infrastructure development and maintenance costly
• Highly influence TV and radio communications
• Rendered rivers less navigable due:
• Waterfalls
• Deep gorges

• Steep cliffs
157
4. Hydroelectric power potential
 Difference in altitude and high rainfall created very
high potential for the production of hydroelectric
power in Ethiopia

158
5. Socio-cultural feeling
 Rugged terrain

• Result of excessive surface dissection


• Long-term isolation of communities
• Led to the occurrence of cultural diversity
• People who live in the highlands: degegnas
(Mountaineers)
• People who live in the lowlands: kollegnas
(Lowlanders)

159
6. Impacts on climate
 Climate of Ethiopia is a result of:

• Tropical position
• Great altitudinal variation
 Highlands moisture surplus
 Lowlands moisture deficit

160
7. Impacts on soil
 Steep mountain slopes provide:

• Low angle of rest


• Unstable surface materials
• Subject to degradation processes
• Shallow and little developed soils

8. Impacts on natural vegetation


 Relief climate and hydrology type of natural
vegetation grown

161
CHAPTER FOUR
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND WATER
RESOURCE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(4hrs)

162
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Water bodies
 Covered 71% of the earth's total surface

 Majorly (97.5%) occupied by seas and oceans…alkaline

 2.5% is fresh water:


• Mainly(68.7% ) deposited in glaciers
• Unevenly distributed due to:
• Latitudinal locations
• Climatic conditions
• Topographic setups
 Surface waters: water in:
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Atmosphere
• Soils
• Wetlands 163
In Ethiopia
• Larger volume of ground and surface water due to:
• Diverse topographical setup
• Relatively higher rainfall
• Nearness to equator
• 0.7 % of the total land mass is covered by water
bodies
• 124.4 BCM surface water potential
• Consequently, Ethiopia calls the “Water Tower” of
eastern Africa
164
4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
Drainage
 Well-defined channel that water flows
 Made up of: a principal river

its tributaries
 A river system begins: source (headwater)
 A river system ends: mouth

165
Drainage system
 Branched network of stream channels together with
the adjacent land slopes they drain
 It is the outcome of:

• Geological processes
• Nature and structure of rock
• Topography
• Slope
• Amount and the periodicity of the flow

166
Drainage basin
 Topographic region from which a river and its
tributaries collect
 Both the surface runoff and subsurface flow
 Separated from and bounded by water/topographic
divide
 Determined by:

• Topography
• Structural formation of the rift valley
• Faults and joints
167
Major Drainage Systems
 Three broadly classification:
 Western
 Southeastern
 Rift Valley
 Western and the Southeastern drainage systems
are separated by the Rift Valley system

168
4.2.1. Western Drainage Systems
 Largest of all drainage systems: Draining 40 % of the total
area

Carry 60 % of the
annual water flow

 Comprises four major river basins:

• Tekeze

• Abay flow westward joining the Nile finally ends


Mediterranean Sea

• Baro-Akobo

• Ghibe (Omo)-flow southward


169
Abay river basin

 Largest river in: volumetric discharge

coverage western
drainage systems
 Covers an area of 199,812 km2

 Covering parts of: Amhara

Oromia

Benishangul-Gumuz

170
 Carries 65% of the annual water flow of the region

 Rises from Lake Tana (origin from sekela, choke


mountain)..Blue Nile
 Joins the white Nile from lake Victoria, Tanzania in
Khartoum (Sudan) to form the great Nile River
 Ghilgel (Little) Abay-largest stream

171
Tekeze river basin

 Carries 12 % of the annual water flow of the region

 Drains 82,350 Km2

 Erosion in the basin resulted in: Large tablelands

Plateau blocks

Isolated mountain groups


 Main tributaries: Angereb

Goang rises in central highlands of


Ethiopia
 Termed Atbara in Sudan

 Mean annual flow is estimated to be 8.2 BMC


172
Baro-Akobo rivers basin

 Drain the wettest highlands in the south and


southwestern Ethiopia
 Carries 17% of the annual water flow

 Flows across an extensive marshy land

 Drain 75,912 km2


 Covering parts of: Benishangul-Gumuz
Gambella
Oromia
SNNPR
 Mean annual flow of 23.6 BMC 173
Ghibe/ Omo river basin

 Drain the wettest highlands in the south and


southwestern Ethiopia
 Carries 6 % of the annual water flow

 Drains an area of 79,000 km2

 Mean annual flow of 16.6 BMC

 Finally empties in to the Chew-Bahir at the mouth of


Lake Turkana
 Termed as inland drainage
174
4.2.2. Southeastern Drainage Systems
 Southeastern physiographic region part of Ethiopia

 Mainly drained by: Wabishebelle slopes


Ghenale slopes
 Include plateaus of: Arsi
Bale
Sidama
Harerghe
 Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers

• Cross the border into somalia


• Carrying 25 % of the annual water flow of Ethiopia

175
Ghenale River basin

 Area of 171,042 km2

 Covering parts of: oromia

SNNPR

somali
 Has fewer tributaries but carries more water than
Wabishebelle
 Reaches the Indian Ocean

 Flows estimated to be 5.8 BMC


176
 In Somalia, it is named the Juba River
Wabishebelle river basin

 A total catchment area of 202,697 km2

 The largest river in terms catchment area

 Drains parts of: Oromia


Harari
Somali
 The longest river in Ethiopia

 Tributaries are mainly left bank and intermittent

 Despite its size, it fails to reach the Indian ocean

 Water disappears in the sands, just near the Juba River


177
Figure 4.1. Drainage Basins of Ethiopia

178
4.2.3. Rift Valley Drainage System
 Area of: small amount of rainfall

high evaporation

small catchment area


 Its size is restricted by the outward sloping highlands

 No one general flow direction, as the streams flow in


all directions
 The only major river basin is the Awash

179
Awash river basin
 Catchment area of 114,123 km2
 Average annual discharge of 4.9 BCM
 Originates from Shewan plateau in central highlands of
Ethiopia
 Covers parts of: Amhara
Oromia
Afar
Somali
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa City
 The most utilized river in the country
 Flows in a northeast direction
 Finally ends in a maze of small lakes and marshy area
 The largest lake is Lake Abe on the Ethio-Djibouti
180
Afar drainage sub-basin

 Practically no stream flow

 Area of: little rain

very high temperature

very high evaporation


 Lake Afrera and Asale

• Only main surface waters in the basin


• Their formation is related to tectonic activities

181
Rift Valley sub-basin

 Characterized by: A number of lakes

Small streams
 Also described as lakes region

 The lakes occupy fault depression

 There are small streams for:

Meki and Katar rivers flow into Ziway

Bilate into Abaya

Segen into Chew Bahir


182
4.3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and
Sub-Surface Water

4.3.1. The Ethiopian Rivers


 Unlike many other African countries, Ethiopia is
endowed with many rivers
 Majority of the rivers originate from highland areas
and cross the Ethiopian boundary
 Altogether, Ethiopian rivers form 12 major
watersheds separating the Mediterranean Sea from
the Indian Ocean drainage systems

183
184
General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
Due to:
• Highland nature of landmass
• Surface ruggedness Et’n rivers have the following
characterized as:
• Inclination of the highlands
• Climatic conditions
• Originate from the highlands
• Trans-boundary
• Extreme seasonal fluctuation
• wet season, runoff is higher and rivers are full bursting
• dry seasons they became mere trickles of water or even dry up
• Rapids and waterfalls along their course
• Flow on steep slopes having steep profiles

185
4.3.2. Ethiopian Lakes
 Relatively Ethiopia is rich in lakes

 Lakes are result of tectonic process that took place


during Quaternary period of Cenozoic era
 Majority of lakes are located within the rift valley
system
 Mainly formed on faulted depressions

186
Lake Tana

• Largest lake in Ethiopia occupies a shallow depression


in the highlands

• Formed slower sinking and reservoir by lava flow b/n


Gojjam and Gonder massifs

187
Crater lakes

 Lakes formed due to volcanic eruption

 Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes

 Include the lakes at and around: Bishoftu, Wonchi


(near Ambo)

Hayk (near Dessie)

Top of Mount
Zikwala
 Lake Ashenge (Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin
188
 Man-made lakes such as: Koka

Fincha

Melka Wakena
 Cluster of lakes are lined up within main Ethiopian rift

• Abaya: largest of all the lakes in the system


• Chew Bahir : drained by Segan and Woito

southern tip of the rift valley


forms
• Shala: deepest the lakes in the central Ethiopian
rift 189
Figure 4.2. Lakes of Ethiopia

190
Table 4.2: Area and depth of some of Ethiopian
Lakes

191
4.3.3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of
Ethiopia
 Lower ground water potential

 Determine: Climatic conditions

Geophysical conditions
 Estimated to be 2.6 - 6.5 BMC

192
4.4. Water Resources Potentials and
Development in Ethiopia
 Underutilized due to so many factors

 Potential development uses of water resource of


Ethiopia

193
1.Hydro-electric Potential
 Very high potential for generating electricity
 Estimated at about 45000 MW
 The first HEP: Akaki River (Aba Samuel) in 1932
 Currently, many others are under construction
 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the
country's largest dam under construction aiming to
generate 6400 MW
 Gilgel Gibe III hydropower project has gone
operational generating 1870 MW
194
 Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric
power plants constructed on different lakes
 Major problem to the use of Ethiopian rivers for HEP:

• The seasonal flow fluctuations


• Impact of climate change and variability's
• Severe erosion from the highlands
• Sedimentation in the reservoirs

195
2. Irrigation and Transportation
 Rugged terrain limits the uses of rivers both for
irrigation and transportation
 In the highlands: steep slopes
rapids
waterfalls are important
obstacles
narrow valleys
deep valleys
gorges
 But on the lowlands, their demand for irrigation is
high
196
 Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa: large irrigation potential

 More than 60% of the area under irrigation is located in


rift valley drainage system
 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for
transportation
 The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river

 Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation


than rivers
 Lake Tana and Abaya: most used for transportation

197
3. Fishing and Recreation
 Lakes are rich in fish
 Estimated to be 31.5 thousand tons
 Exploitable fish potential in lakes varies
 Currently lake tana leads the potential by estimated
8,000-10,000 tons per year
 Fish production from lake chamo is estimated at
4,500 tons per year
 More than 60% of fish supplies are coming from
Ethiopian main rift valley lakes
198
 However, some of the lakes are currently threatened
by
• Sedimentation
• Invasive species (water hyacinth)
• Over exploitation
• Expansion of investments around lakes

 A variety of fish, birds and other aquatic life forms in


the lakes
 scenic beauty of the lakes
 hot springs
 spectacular river gorges important recreational and
tourist attractions
 impressive waterfalls
 variety of wild life
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