PROJECTION

Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that
a two dimensional surface (paper) be used to
communicate ideas and the physical description of a
variety of shapes. Here projections have been divided in
to two basic categories; pictorial and multi view.
This simple division separates single view projections
(oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi view
projections (orthographic).
 Introduction
Theoretically, projections can be classified as
convergent and parallel, or divided in to three systems of
projection: perspective, oblique, and orthographic.
Division of types based on whether the
drawing is a one view or multi view projection
sufficiently separate projection types in to those used for
engineering working drawings (orthographic) and those
used for display (architectural rendering, technical
illustrations etc).
 Introduction
Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's
get a
good look at this strange block (figure 5.1) from several
angles.
 Isometric Drawing
The representation of the object is called an isometric
drawing.
 Isometric Drawing
This is one of a family of three-dimensional views called
pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's
vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal
lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30
degrees to the horizontal. When drawn under these
guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at
their true (scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to
these axes will not be of their true length.
 Orthographic or Multi view
Projection
Imagine that you have an object suspended by
transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure
shown.
 Orthographic or Multi view
Projection
Imagine that you have an object suspended by
transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure
shown.
 Orthographic or Multi view
Projection
Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen
from that direction. This shows how the three views
appear on a piece of
paper . Multi view drawing and its explanation.
 Orthographic or Multi view
Projection

Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing?

The views that reveal every detail about the object. Three
views are not always necessary; we need only as many
views as are required to describe the object fully. For
example, some objects need only two views, while others
need four.
 Orthographic or Multi view
Projection
The circular object below requires only two views.
 Theory of Multi view Projections
Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of
graphic communication used in engineering work. Drawings are
used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and procedures for
the manufacture of the object or construction of a system.
Orthographic projection is the basis of all descriptive geometry
procedures.
Multi view projection is a procedure that can be used to
completely describe an object’s shape and dimensions using two
or more views that are normally projected at 900 to each other,
or at specified angles.
In general, engineering work is complete using this method of
projection. The finished drawing is then reproduced and sent to
the shop or to the job site.
 Theory of Multi view Projections
To design and communicate every detail to manufacturing
groups (Engineers, technicians) descriptions must be prepared.
This description must show every aspect of the shape and size of
each part and of the complete structure. Because of this
necessity graphics is the fundamental method of communication
only as a supplement, for notes and specifications, is the word
language used.
Shape is described by projection that is by the process of
causing an image to be formed by rays of sight taken in a
particular direction from an object to a picture plane. Methods
of projection vary according to the direction in which the rays of
sight are taken to the plane. When the rays are perpendicular to
the plane, the projective method is Orthographic.
 Theory of Multi view Projections

If the rays are at an angle to the plane, the projective method is

called oblique. Rays taken to a particular station point result in
perspective projection. By the methods of perspective, the
object is represented as it would appear to the eye.
Theory of projection is the basis of background information
necessary to shape representation in graphics.
 Theory of Multi view Projections
Two fundamental methods of shape representation are used.
1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate
views of an object taken from different directions, generally
at right angles to each other and arranged relative to each
other in a definite way. Each of the views shows the shape of
the object for a particular view direction and collectively the
views describe the object completely.
2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and
projected up on a single plane. Either oblique on perspective
projection is used.
 Orthographic Projection
Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single
projection made by dropping perpendiculars to a plane. In short,
orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact
shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more
sides of the object to planes, generally at right angles to each
other; collectively, the views on these planes
describe the object completely.
Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic
projection in order to solve for advanced technical data involving
the spatial relation ship of points, lines, planes, and solid shapes.
The most common means of understanding these types of
orthographic projection is The Glass Box
method.
 Orthographic Projection
The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry
problems, requires that the user imagine that the object, points,
lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent “box”.
Orthographic Projection
 Orthographic Views
It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by
extending perpendiculars to the plane from all points of the
object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the
shape of the object when viewed from the front but it does not
tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more
than one protection is required to describe the object.
 The Six Principal Views
Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each
at sight angles to each other. On these planes, views of the
object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and right
side, left side, bottom and rear.
In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal
views are needed on one drawing. All these views are principal
views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions
of height, width and depth.
The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views.
Each is vertical. The top and bottom planes are in the horizontal
plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are
required.
 COMBINATION OF VIEWS
The most usual combination selected from the six possible views
consists of the top, front, and right side views some times the
left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly then the
light side view.
The six principal views of an object or the glass box have
previously been presented in the type of orthographic projection
known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection.
COMBINATION OF VIEWS
 COMBINATION OF VIEWS
In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front
of the image plane. Each view is formed by projecting through
the object and on to the image plane.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections
Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or
may not have some surfaces parallel or perpendicular to the
planes of projection.
Surfaces are classified according to their space relationship
with the planes of projection i.e. horizontal, frontal and profile
surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two of the planes of
projection (but perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to
be auxiliary or inclined .It the surface is at angle to all three
planes, the term oblique or skew is used.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections
A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces
The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a
simple position or inclined to the planes of projection depending
up on the shape or position, the surface takes is name from the
plane of projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line in a
horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal plane; and a
profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to
two planes, the line takes the name of both planes as horizontal
frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal profile.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections
A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

B. Inclined Surfaces
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane
of projection, as a point when it is perpendicular to the plane
and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

C. Oblique Surfaces
A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an
oblique skew line and it does not show in true shape in any of
the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval
length in one view and is fore shortened in the other two
views.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

D. Hidden Surfaces
To describe an object with complex internal features
completely, a drawing should contain lines representing all
the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects In
any view there will be some parts of the object that can not be
seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered
by station of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The
edges, intersections, and surface limits of these hidden parts
are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

D. Hidden Surfaces
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

E. Curved Surfaces
To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections,
center lines are commonly utilized. All the center lines, which
are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are a part
of views.
1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the
axis drawn as center line before the part is drawn.
2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two
mutually perpendicular center lines.
The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a
fine line made up of alternate long and short dashes.
 Classification of surfaces and Lines in
Orthographic Projections

E. Curved Surfaces
 Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden

portions of the object may project to coincide with visible
portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or
hidden out line of some part of the object.
Precedence of Lines. The following are rules that govern line
precedence in sketches and technical drawings. Object lines
take precedence over hidden and center lines. Hidden lines
take precedence over center lines. Cutting plane lines take
precedence over all others.
 Precedence of lines

The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.

1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.
 Pictorial Projections

Pictorial projection is a method of drawing an object by

projecting its features onto a single plane, usually at an
oblique or isometric angle. The plane is tilted to show more
than one face of the object at once, creating a three-
dimensional impression.
As we have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal
types of projection are:
♦ Multi view projection
♦ Axonometric projection
♦ Oblique projection
♦ Perspective projection
 Pictorial Projections

• Multi view drawing/projection combines several

orthographic projections into a single document.
• Axonometric projection is a type of orthographic projection
used for creating a pictorial drawing of an object, where the
object is rotated around one or more of its axes to reveal
multiple sides.
• An oblique projection is a parallel projection in which the
lines of sight are not perpendicular to the projection plane.
• Perspective Projection is the graphic representation of an
object on a single plane called Picture Plane (PP).
Pictorial Projections
 Pictorial Projections

Axonometric projections are classified as

a) Isometric projection
b) Dimetric Projection
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales
of reduction required.
Pictorial Projections
 Isometric Projection

To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal

measure”), it is necessary to place the object so that its
principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of
projection, and are therefore foreshortened equally.
 Isometric Projection

Isometric projection is a method for visually representing

three-dimensional objects in two dimensions in technical and
engineering drawings. It is an axonometric projection in which
the three coordinate axes appear equally foreshortened and
the angle between any two of them is 120 degrees.
 Isometric Projection

Isometric drawing, also called isometric projection, method of

graphic representation of three-dimensional objects, used by
engineers, technical illustrators, and, occasionally, architects.
An isometric projection results if the plane is oriented so that
it makes equal angles (hence “isometric,” or “equal measure”)
with the three principal planes of the object.
In an isometric drawing of a cube, the three visible faces
appear as equilateral parallelograms.
 Box Construction

Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by

means of box construction, which consists simply in imagining
the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides
coincide with the main faces of the object.
Box Construction
 Lines in Isometric Drawing

Hidden Lines
The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by
the same rules as in all other types of projection: Hidden lines
are omitted unless they are needed to make the drawing
clear. If a projecting part cannot be clearly shown with out the
use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are needed.
 Lines in Isometric Drawing

Center Lines
The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by
the same rules as in multi view drawing: center lines are
drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry, or if they are
needed for dimensioning. In general, center lines should be
used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The use of too
many center lines may produce a confusion of lines, which
diminishes the clearness of the drawing.