MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING II
CHAPTER ONE
 Fundamentals of shearing process
• Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting edges.

• Shearing is typically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent press
working operations.

• It is performed on a machine called a power shears, or squaring shears. The upper blade of the
power shears is often inclined, to reduce the required cutting force.
 Fundamentals of shearing process
A shearing process in which excess materials is removed by cutting tools.
• A variety of work materials

• Repeatable’ regular geometries

• Close tolerance (<0.025μm)

• Smooth surface finish (0.4μm)

• Waste, Expensive: Cost and Time

• Other processes such as casting, forging, and bar drawing create the general shape

• Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special geometric details
 Fundamentals of cutting
• Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed. Usually, the
portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips.

• Common cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching, drilling,
grinding, turning and milling.

Cutting condition

• Relative motion between tool and work

• Cutting conditions

Cutting speed, v(m/s) –Surface speed

Feed f(m): the lateral distance traveled by the tool during one revolution.
 Fundamentals of cutting
Material Removal Rate
• Roughing -removes large amounts of material, at high feeds and depths, low speeds

• Finishing -Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish, Low feeds and depths, high
cutting speeds

Types of chips produced in Metal-Cutting:

1.Discontinuous chip. When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are
machined at low cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments
(sometimes the segments are loosely attached).
 Fundamentals of cutting
2.Continuous chip. When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and
relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips are formed.

3.Continuous chip with built-up edge. When machining ductile materials at low-
to medium cutting speeds.

• friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to
adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge.

4.Serrated chips. term shear-localized is also used for this fourth chip type. These
chips are semi-continuous
Fundamentals of cutting
 Cutting Forces
• Cutting is a process of extensive stresses and plastic deformations.

• The high compressive and frictional contact stresses on the tool

face result in a substantial cutting force F.
 Cont..
• Knowledge of the cutting forces is essential for the following reasons:
• proper design of the cutting tools
• proper design of the fixtures used to hold the workpiece and cutting
tool
• calculation of the machine tool power
• selection of the cutting conditions to avoid an excessive distortion of the
workpiece
 Cont..
• In orthogonal cutting, the total cutting force F is conveniently resolved into two
components in the horizontal and vertical direction, which can be directly
measured using a force measuring device called a dynamometer.

• If the force and force components are plotted at the tool point instead of at their
actual points of application along the shear plane and tool face, we obtain a
convenient and compact diagram.
 Cont..

The two force components act against the tool:

1. Cutting force (Fc)

• This force is in the direction of primary/speed motion.

• The cutting force constitutes about 70~80 % of the total force F and is used to
calculate the power P required to perform the machining operation.

P = V * Fc

2. Thrust force Fd:

• This force is in direction of feed motion in orthogonal cutting.

 Cont..

• In oblique cutting (3D dimensional cutting), one more force component

appears along the third axis.

• The thrust force Fd is further resolved into two more components, one in the
direction of feed motion called feed force Ff, and the other perpendicular to it
and to the cutting force Fp called back force Fp, which is in the direction of the
cutting tool axis.
 Cutting force control

• The cutting force value is primarily affected by:

• Cutting conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth of cut d)
• Cutting tool geometry
• Properties of work material.

• The simplest way to control cutting forces is to change the cutting conditions.
 Power in Machining:

• A machining operation requires power and the power required for machining
can be determined by:

Pc = Fc Vc
• Where Pc is cutting power, Fc is the cutting force and Vc is the cutting
velocity.

Specific Energy in machining:

• Unit power is also known as specific energy, U, which is given as:

U = Pu = Pc/MRR = FcVc/(vtow) = Fc/tow

 TOOL LIFE
• Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used.
Operating the tool until final catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life

• There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in machining.

1.Fracture failure: This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool
point becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.

2.Temperature failure: This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high
for the tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften, which leads to
plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
 TOOL WEAR
3. Gradual wear: Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape,
reduction in cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes
heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.

• Wear is basically removal of material from the body of the tool and is a result
of process parameters existing at the tool-work piece interface due to relative
motion and cutting conditions.

• Tool wear is an important problem for machining because it is not only affects
the economic advantage of machining, it also affects the surface quality of the
work piece.
 Types & Mechanisms of Tool Wear
• Flank wear at the front edge of the tool flank face and

• Crater wear at the tool rake face are the most typical modes of tool wear in
machining..

• Flank wear is mainly a result of abrasion of the tool by hard particles (but there
may also be adhesive effects); it is the dominating wear mode at low cutting
speeds.

• Crater wear is the formation of a groove or a crater on the tool rake face
where the chip rubs the tool surface.
cont..
 Wear Mechanisms

• Different wear mechanisms, predominantly present in metal cutting can be

classified as sliding wear mechanisms and non-sliding wear mechanisms.

• Sliding wear mechanisms include abrasive wear, adhesive wear and

delamination wear.

• a). Adhesion wear

• Fragments of the workpiece get welded to the tool surface at high

temperatures; eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the tool with
them.
 Cont.…

• Adhesive wear occurs between two surfaces rubbing against each other as a
result of formation and breakage of the interfacial bonds.

b). Abrasion wear

• It is caused by the contact of a tool body with a particle, where the particle
slides over the body and the movement causes material loss.

• Hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the chips rub
against the tool surface.

c). Delamination wear

 Cont.…

• It is another mechanism of wear when chips are sliding against tool surfaces at
low speeds which do not generate very high contact temperatures.

• In this process, large wear particles are removed in the form of layers by the
process of plastic deformation of the surface layer.

Non-sliding tool wear mechanisms

• Non-sliding wear mechanisms include solution wear, diffusion wear,

electrochemical wear and oxidation wear and become dominant with the
chemical instability where cutting temperatures are very high: up to 1,600°C
as in high-speed machining.
 Cont.…
a) Solution and diffusion wear

• This occurs when work piece and tool material react with each other to form a
solution.

• The rate of the solution is dependent on cutting temperature at the interface and
increases with the increasing temperature.

• At high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip; the rate of
diffusion increases exponentially with temperature; this reduces the fracture
strength of the crystals.

• The wear due to diffusion is more dependent on the chemical properties of the
 Cont.…
b). Electrochemical wear

• Electrochemical wear is caused by a thermoelectric electromotive force (emf)

generated at the work-tool junction during the cutting process.

• The emf causes electric currents to circulate and results in the passage of ions
from the tool to the work piece.

c). Oxidation wear

• This type of wear is a result of the chemical bonding of tool material atoms
with oxygen.
 Cont.…
• Oxidation in metal cutting occurs in the area where the chips are generated at
elevated temperatures, usually above 700°C.

• This type of wear is caused due to a chemical reaction between CBN’s chemical
composition and work piece materials.
 Tool Life Prediction
Taylor Tool-life Model

• The discovery of this relationship around 1900 is credited to F.W. Taylor

• The Taylor tool-life model generally deals with flank wear.

• Crater wear models have also been formulated using the Taylor tool-life model.

• The basic expression for the Taylor tool-life equation is:

Where V = cutting speed (ft/min or &sec)

T = tool life (min or sec)

n = Taylor tool-life exponent

 cont..

#Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of

the slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations
and C is the cutting speed at T = 1min.
 cont.…

• Increases in cutting speed cause large decreases in tool life, especially when the
Taylor tool-life exponent is small.

• The effect of changes in cutting speed upon tool life is much greater for tool
steels, which have low values of n , than for carbides or ceramics, which have
higher values of n.
 cont.…

Example1.

• If the values of C and n for the basic Taylor tool-life equation are 200 ft/min
and 0.25, respectively, answer the following questions.

a) A cutting speed of 50 ft/min is used. What is the tool life?

b) The cutting speed is increased 20 percent (to 60 ft/min). What is the effect
upon tool life?
 Tool Materials
• The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three important properties
required in a tool material:

• Toughness is the capacity of a material to absorb energy without failing. It is

usually characterized by a combination of strength and ductility in the material.

• Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at high temperatures.
This is required because of the high-temperature environment in which the tool
operates.

• Wear resistance. Hardness is the single most important property needed to resist

abrasive wear.
cont..
 cont.…

Experimental methods of determination of cutting temperature:

• Amongst θs, θi and θf , θi is obviously the highest one and its value is maximum
almost at the middle of the chip – tool contact length.

• Experimental methods generally provide the average or maximum value of θi.

• Some techniques also enable get even distribution of temperature in the chip,
tool and job at the cutting zone.
 cont.…

• It is already seen that high cutting temperature is mostly detrimental in several

respects. Therefore, it is necessary to control or reduce the cutting temperature as
far as possible.

• Cutting temperature can be controlled in varying extent by the following

general methods:
• Proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tool(s)
• Optimum selection of Vc – F-Doc combination without sacrificing MRR
• Proper selection and application of cutting fluid.
 Material Removal Rate
• Material removal rate (MRR) is the amount of material removed per time unit
(usually per minute) when performing machining operations such as using a lathe
or milling machine

• The more material removed per minute, the higher the material removal rate.

• The material removal rate in a work process can be calculated as the depth of the
cut, times the width of the cut, times the feed rate. The material removal rate is
typically measured in cubic centimeters per minute (cm3/min).

• Cutting a work piece with width w at a depth d, the material removal rate is
where, fr=feed rate
 Surface finish
• Surface finish, also known as surface texture or surface topography, is the nature of a
surface as defined by the three characteristics of lay, surface roughness, and waviness.

• It comprises the small, local deviations of a surface from the perfectly flat ideal (a true
plane).

• Each manufacturing process (such as the many kinds of machining) produces a surface
texture.

• If necessary, an additional process will be added to modify the initial texture. The latter
process may be grinding (abrasive cutting), polishing, lapping, abrasive blasting, honing,
electrical discharge machining (EDM), milling, lithography, industrial etching/
chemical milling, laser texturing, or other processes.
 Machinability
• Machinability is the ease with which a metal can be cut (machined) permitting
the removal of the material with a satisfactory finish at low cost.

• Materials with good machinability (free machining materials) require little power
to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not cause significant
wear on the tooling. Factors that typically improve a material's performance often
degrade its machinability, presenting a significant engineering challenge.

• Machinability can be based on the measure of how long a tool lasts.

 Material Consumption
• Domestic material consumption (DMC) refers to the amount of materials (in terms
of weight) used in an economy, i.e. materials extracted or harvested in the country,
plus materials and products imported, minus material and products exported. The
data refer to metals, non-metallic minerals (construction minerals, industrial
minerals), biomass (wood, food) and fossil energy carriers.
END
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