2

Introduction:
Reduction
• Oxidation results in an increase in the number of bonds
between C and a more electronegative atom, C —Z,
(usually C—O) or decrease in the number of C—H bonds.
• Reduction results in a decrease in the number of C—Z
bonds (usually C—O) or an increase in the number of
C—H bonds.
Figure 12.1 A general scheme for the oxidation
and reduction of a carbon compound

3
Introduction:
Reduction
• Two carbon atoms may be involved in a single oxidation
or reduction reaction.
• The conversion of an alkyne to an alkene, or an alkene to
an alkane are examples of this type reduction because
each process adds two new C—H bonds to the starting
material.

4
 Reduction
Reducing Agents:

• There are three ways of introducing 2 Hs in a reduction.

1. The first method uses H2 gas. Catalytic hydrogenation
requires a metal catalyst (usually Pt, Pd or Ni) with H2.
2. A second method adds two protons and two electrons
to a substrate, and 2H+ + 2e- = H2
Reductions of this sort use alkali metals as a source
of electrons, and liquid ammonia as a source of
protons, Nao in NH3 (liq) or Lio in NH3 (liq).
These are called dissolving metal reductions.

5
 Reduction
Reducing Agents:
3. The third way is to add hydride (H¯) and a proton (H+).
The most common hydride reducing agents contain
a hydrogen atom bonded to boron or aluminum.
Simple examples include sodium borohydride
(NaBH4) and lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4).
NaBH4 and LiAlH4 deliver H¯ to the substrate, and
then a proton is added from H2O or an alcohol.

6
 Reduction
Some common reducing agents
Reducing agents Acts on:
Catalytic H2 / Pt, Pd or Ni C=C, CC
Hydrogenation C=O
Hydroboration BH3 / THF C=C, CC

Dissolving Metal Nao / NH3 (liq.) CC

Lio / NH3 (liq.)
Metal Hydride NaBH4 / alcohol C=O
LiAlH4 / ether C=O

7
 Reduction
Reduction of Alkenes: Catalytic Hydrogenation

• The addition of H2 occurs only in the presence of a metal

catalyst, and thus it is called catalytic hydrogenation.
• The catalyst consists of a metal, usually Pd, Pt, or Ni,
adsorbed onto a finely divided inert solid, such as charcoal.
• H2 adds in a syn fashion.

8
 Reduction
Reduction of Alkenes: Catalytic Hydrogenation
• The Ho of hydrogenation, also known as the heat of
hydrogenation, can be used as a measure of the relative
stability of two different alkenes that are hydrogenated to form
the same alkane.

• When hydrogenation of two alkenes gives the same alkane, the

more stable alkene has the smaller heat of hydrogenation.
9
 Reduction
Reduction of Alkenes: Catalytic Hydrogenation
• The mechanism explains two facts about hydrogenation:

10
 Reduction
Reduction of Alkynes:
• There are three paths to add H2 to a triple bond:

11
 Reduction
Alkyne reduction to a Cis Alkene:
• Palladium metal is too reactive to allow hydrogenation
of an alkyne to stop after one equivalent of H 2 adds.
• To stop at a cis alkene, a less active Pd catalyst is used,
Pd adsorbed onto CaCO3 with added lead(II) acetate and
quinoline. This is called Lindlar’s catalyst.
• Compared to Pd metal, the Lindlar catalyst is
deactivated or “poisoned”.
• With the Lindlar catalyst, one equivalent of H 2 adds to an
alkyne to form the cis product. The cis alkene product
is unreactive to further reduction.

12
 Reduction
Alkyne reduction to a Cis Alkene:
• Reduction of an alkyne to a cis alkene is a stereospecific
reaction, because only one stereoisomer is formed.
• Remember, one can also use hydroboration-acidification
instead of Lindlar’s catalyst to get a cis alkene.

13
 Reduction
Alkyne reduction to a Trans Alkene:
• In a dissolving metal reduction (such as Na in NH3), the
elements of H2 are added in an anti fashion to form a
trans alkene. Na has only one electron, so, electrons
for the reduction are added sequentially from 2 Na
atoms.

14
 Reduction
Alkyne reduction to a Trans Alkene:
• Dissolving metal reduction of a triple bond with Na in NH 3 is a
stereoselective reaction because it forms a trans product
exclusively.
• Dissolving metal reductions always form the more stable
trans product preferentially.
• The trans alkene is formed because the vinyl carbanion
intermediate that is formed is more stable when the larger R
groups are further away from each other to avoid steric
interactions. Protonation of this anion leads to the more
stable trans adduct.

15
 Reduction
Alkyne reduction to a Trans Alkene:

16
 Reduction
Summary of Alkyne Reductions:
Figure 12.5 Summary: Three methods to reduce a triple bond

17
18
OXIDATION

19
Introduction:
OXIDATION
• Oxidation results in an increase in the number of bonds
between C and a more electronegative atom, C —Z,
(usually C—O) or decrease in the number of C—H bonds.
• Reduction results in a decrease in the number of C—Z
bonds (usually C—O) or an increase in the number of
C—H bonds.
Figure 12.1 A general scheme for the oxidation
and reduction of a carbon compound

20
 Oxidation
Oxidizing Agents:
• There are two main categories of oxidizing agents:
1. Reagents that contain an oxygen-oxygen bond
2. Reagents that contain metal-oxygen bonds
• Oxidizing agents containing an O—O bond include O 2,
O3 (ozone), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), (CH3)3COOH
(tert-butyl hydroperoxide), and peroxyacids.
• Peroxyacids (or peracids) have the general formula
RCO3H.
Figure 12.7
Common
peroxyacids

21
Oxidizing Agents:
Oxidation
• The most common oxidizing agents with metal-oxygen
bonds contain either chromium +6 (six Cr—O bonds) or
manganese +7 (seven Mn—O bonds).
• Common Cr6+ reagents include CrO3 and sodium or
potassium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7 and K2Cr2O7). Pyridinium
chlorochromate (PCC) is a more selective Cr6+ oxidant.

• The most common Mn7+ reagent is KMnO4 (potassium

permanganate).
• Other oxidizing agents that contain metals include OsO 4
(osmium tetroxide) and Ag2O [silver(I) oxide]. 22
 Oxidation
Oxidizing Agents:
Figure 12.8 Oxidation reactions of alkenes, alkynes, and alcohols

23
Epoxidation:
Oxidation
• Epoxidation is the addition of a single oxygen atom to an
alkene to form an epoxide.
• Epoxidation is typically carried out with a peroxyacid.

24
Epoxidation:
Oxidation
• Epoxidation occurs via syn addition of an O atom to
either side of a planar double bond. Thus, a cis
alkene gives an epoxide with cis substituents. A
trans alkene gives an epoxide with trans substituents.

• Epoxidation is stereospecific because cis and trans

alkenes yield different stereoisomers as products.
25
 Oxidation
Dihydroxylation:
• Dihydroxylation is the addition of two hydroxy groups
to a double bond, forming a 1,2-diol or glycol.
• Depending on the reagent, the two new OH groups can
be added to the opposite sides (anti addition) or the
same side (syn addition) of the double bond.

26
 Oxidation
Anti-Dihydroxylation via an epoxide:
• Anti dihydroxylation is achieved in two steps: epoxidation,
followed by ring opening with ¯OH or H3O+.

27
 Oxidation
Syn Dihydroxylation:

• Syn hydroxylation results when an alkene is treated

with either KMnO4 or OsO4.

dilute

• The reaction of an alkene or an alkyne with dilute

KMnO4 is the Baeyer test for unsaturation. KMnO4
and the MnO2 product is a brown precipitate.
28
 Oxidation
Syn Dihydroxylation:
• Each reagent adds two oxygen atoms in a syn fashion.
• Hydrolysis of the cyclic intermediate cleaves the metal oxygen
bonds, forming a cis-1,2-diol.

29
 Oxidation
Syn Dihydroxylation:
• Dihydroxylation can also be carried out by using a catalytic
amount of OsO4, if either the oxidant N-methylmorpholine N-
oxide (NMO) or hydrogen peroxide is also added.
• In the catalytic process, dihydroxylation of the double bond
converts the Os8+ oxidant into an Os6+ product, which is then
reoxidized by NMO or H2O2 to Os8+.

or H2O2

30
 Oxidation
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes with KMnO4:
• Addition of conc. KMnO4 in base with heat to an alkene
results in cleavage between the carbons of the double bond.
• Products depend on the number of hydrogens attached to
each carbon of the alkene. Look at each C.

• R-CH=CH2 One H on C yields a carboxylic acid, RCOOH

Two Hs on C yields carbon dioxide, CO2

• R-CH=CH-R' One H on C yields a carboxylic acid, RCOOH

+ R'COOH
• R2-C=CH2 No Hs on C yields a ketone, R-CO-R
Two Hs on C yields carbon dioxide, CO2

31
 Oxidation
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes with O : 3
• Oxidative cleavage of an alkene breaks both the  and 
bonds of the double bond to form two carbonyl compounds.
Cleavage with ozone (O3) is called ozonolysis.

32
 Oxidation
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkynes with O3:
• Alkynes undergo oxidative cleavage of the  and both 
bonds.
• Internal alkynes are oxidized to carboxylic acids (RCOOH).
• Terminal alkynes afford a carboxylic acid and CO 2 from the
sp hybridized C—H bond.

33
 Oxidation
Oxidation of Alcohols:
• Alcohols are oxidized to a variety of carbonyl compounds.

34
 Oxidation
Oxidation of Alcohols:
• Recall that the oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds
is typically carried out with Cr6+ oxidants, which are reduced
to Cr4+ then to Cr3+ products.
• CrO3, Na2Cr2O7, and K2Cr2O7 are strong, nonselective oxidants
used in aqueous acid (H2SO4 + H2O).
• PCC is soluble in CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane) and can be used
without strong acid present, making it a more selective, milder
oxidant.

35
 Oxidation
Oxidation of 2° Alcohols:
• Any of the Cr6+ oxidants effectively oxidize 2° alcohols
to ketones.

36
 Oxidation
Oxidation of 1° Alcohols:
• 1° Alcohols are oxidized to either aldehydes or
carboxylic acids, depending on the reagent.

37
 Oxidation
Oxidation of 1° Alcohols:

38
39
 Oxidation and Reduction
Green Chemistry:
• Green chemistry is the use of environmentally safe or
harmless methods to synthesize compounds.
• Its purpose is to use safer reagents and less solvent, and
develop reactions that form fewer by-products and generate
less waste.
• Since many oxidation methods use toxic reagents (such as
OsO4 and O3) and corrosive acids such as H2SO4, or generate
carcinogenic by-products (such as Cr3+), alternative less
problematic regents have been developed.
One methods uses a polymer supported Cr3+ reagent,
Amberlyst A-26 resin-HCrO4, this avoids the use of strong
acid, and forms a Cr3+ by-product that can easily be removed
from the product by filtration.
The Amberlyst A-26 resin consists of a complex hydrocarbon
network with cationic ammonium ion appendages that serve
40
as counterions to the anionic chromium agent, HCrO ¯.
 Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation of 1° Alcohols:
Figure 12.10 Blood
alcohol screening

41
 Oxidation and Reduction
Green Chemistry:
• Heating the insoluble polymeric reagent with an alcohol
results in oxidation to a carbonyl compound, with
formation of an insoluble Cr3+ by-product which can be
regenerated and reused in a subsequent reaction.

42
 Oxidation and Reduction
Green Chemistry:

• With Amberlyst A-26 resin-HCrO4¯, 1° alcohols are

oxidized to aldehydes and 2° alcohols are oxidized to
ketones.

43
 Oxidation and Reduction

The Sharpless Epoxidation of allylic alcohols:

• Recall that in the reactions we have discussed thus far,
an achiral starting material has reacted with an achiral
reagent to give either an achiral product, or a racemic
mixture of two enantiomers.

44
 Oxidation and Reduction
The Sharpless Epoxidation:
• The Sharpless reagent consists of three different
components: tert-butylhydroperoxide (CH3)3COOH; a
titanium catalyst (usually titanium(IV) isopropoxide),
Ti[OCH(CH3)2]4; and diethyl tartrate (DET).
• There are two different chiral diethyl tartrate isomers,
labeled as (+)-DET or (-)-DET to indicate the direction in
which they rotate plane polarized light.
• The identity of the DET isomer determines which enantiomer
is the major product obtained in the epoxidation.

45
 Oxidation and Reduction
The Sharpless Epoxidation:

• In the Sharpless epoxidation, the double bonds

of allylic alcohols are oxidized to epoxides.

• Since the formation of only one enantiomer is

favored, the reaction is said to be
enantioselective or asymmetric.

• An enantioselective reaction affords

predominantly or exclusively one enantiomer.

46
 Oxidation and Reduction
The Sharpless Epoxidation:
• The peroxide is the oxidizing agent (1:1 with the
alkene). The titanium and DET form a catalytic
complex (about 5-10%).

47
 Oxidation and Reduction
The Sharpless Epoxidation:
• To determine which enantiomer is formed from a
given isomer of DET, draw the allylic alcohol in a
plane, with the OH group in the bottom right hand
corner; then note that:

48
 Oxidation and Reduction
The Sharpless Epoxidation:

• Reactions [1] and [2] are highly enantioselective as

each has an enantiomeric excess of 95% (i.e., 97.5% of
the major enantiomer and 2.5% of the minor
enantiomer). 49