CHAPTER ONE

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS FOR

VOICE AND DATA
 Wireless communication
Wireless networks differ from wired networks, which
require each end of a data connection to be physically
connected by a cable in order for communication to take
place.
Wireless networks make it possible for organizations to
eliminate the dedicated wired cabling required to connect
endpoint computing devices -- such as tablets, laptops and
smartphones -- to embedded and peripheral devices
Cont.…
Wireless communication is the transmission of information
between devices without the use of physical connections,
such as wires or cables.
It uses radio waves or electromagnetic signals to send data
over short or long distances.
 Wireless network
A wireless network refers to a computer network that makes use of
Radio Frequency (RF) connections between nodes in the network.
Wireless networks are a popular solution for homes, businesses, and
telecommunications networks.
Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless
local area networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite
communication networks, and terrestrial microwave networks.
Wireless networking, or WiFi, is a very popular wireless networking
technology today.
 There are more than several hundreds of millions of WiFi devices.
 What is WiFi?

WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity, and is increasingly used in today’s

market place.
A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) or WiFi, is a computer network
that transmits and receives data with radio signals instead of wires.
WLANs are used increasingly in both home and office environments,
public areas such as airports, coffee shops, marinas and universities.
Increased flexibility and the absence of cabling and other fixed
infrastructure have proven to be beneficial for many users.
 There is no more need to lay to rest cable between buildings, and ruin
walls in order to get computers connected.
Wireless networks have increased in speed, and have become more secure
and reliable.
 Cont.….
Wireless networks generally include some form of radio
transmission for broadcasting and receiving wireless signals
across a specified range of electromagnetic radiation spectrum,
commonly referred to simply as spectrum.
 The transmission of data across a wireless network is typically
done with antennas, which are often small, embedded pieces of
hardware within a given device.
 Different wireless networks use various frequency ranges of
spectrum.
Within the spectrum, different channels help reduce the risk of
congestion within a given spectrum frequency.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGY
Mobility: Wireless technology enables users to access communication
networks and services without being physically tethered to a fixed location.
This mobility allows for greater flexibility and convenience in
accessing information and resources.
Flexibility: Wireless networks can be deployed in various environments and
configurations, adapting to
different spatial constraints and user requirements.
This flexibility facilitates the implementation of diverse applications and
services.
 Cont.…
Scalability: Wireless networks can easily accommodate changes in network
size and capacity, allowing for
seamless expansion or contraction based on evolving demands.
 This scalability is particularly beneficial in dynamic environments with
fluctuating user populations or data traffic.
Accessibility: Wireless technology enhances accessibility by extending
network coverage to remote or hard-
to-reach areas where wired infrastructure may be impractical or cost-
prohibitive.
 This accessibility promotes digital inclusion and connectivity for
underserved populations.
 Cont.….
Reliability: Despite potential challenges such as signal interference or
environmental factors, wireless networks strive to maintain reliable
communication services.
Advanced protocols and technologies are employed to mitigate
disruptions and ensure consistent performance.
Security: Ensuring the security of wireless communication is paramount to
protect sensitive data and prevent unauthorized access.
Encryption, authentication mechanisms, and other security protocols are
implemented to safeguard wireless networks against potential threats and
vulnerabilities.
The unique features of the wireless network
The bandwidths, and consequently data rates, of communication
channels are restricted by government regulations.
The government policies allow only a few frequency ranges for
wireless communications.
The communication channel between senders/receivers is often
impaired by noise, interference and weather fluctuations.

The senders and receivers of information are not physically connected

to a network.
Thus the location of a sender/receiver is unknown prior to start of
communication and can change during the conversation.
 Cellular voice
Cellular voice is a method of communication that uses a cellular network
to transmit voice over the air
Cellular networks use a combination of radio waves and digital
technology to transmit voice, data, and other forms of communication
between mobile device.
Cellular network is A telecommunications network that uses radio
antennas to connect devices to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) and the internet.
 Components of cellular network
A cellular network’s infrastructure consists of an array of key component
parts.
These components work together to manage data transmission, network
access and device authentication – supporting traditional mobile
communication networks and a rapidly growing number of IoT devices
 IoT Devices

Firstly, IoT devices cover a broad range of sensors, actuators and smart
gadgets designed to gather data or control physical systems / objects
within the IoT ecosystem.
A few practical examples of IoT devices applications include:
Smart sensors which help to monitor the environment
Wearables tracking health metrics in real time
Industrial machinery fitted with automation capabilities
Connected home appliances that improve the everyday life of the user
Smart lighting that enables users to control lighting remotely
Fleet management systems for use in tracking vehicle movements or fuel
consumption
 IoT Gateway

An IoT gateway serves as a bridge between IoT devices and the broader
network infrastructure, providing seamless communication and data
exchange.
activities handled by gateways.
Protocol translation
Data collection and aggregation
Data filtering and processing
Security management
Local processing capabilities
Connectivity management
Remote monitoring and control
Edge computing
 Base Station (Cell Tower)

Base stations or cell towers are physical structures equipped with

antennas and transceivers that facilitate communication between mobile
devices and the cellular network technology.
 Each base station is strategically located to ensure optimal
geographical coverage in specific areas known as cells.
Cont.….
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is a central switching entity that

connects the cellular network to other networks, including the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) and the internet.
It manages functions such as:
Call routing
Mobility management
Handover management
Resource allocation
Call setup and teardown
Inter-network Connectivity
Security management
Data packet routing
Various other core network operations
 Home Location Register (HLR)
The Home Location Register (HLR) is a database within the cellular
network infrastructure responsible for storing subscriber information,
including their current location, services subscribed, and authentication
details.
It plays a critical role in managing subscriber profiles and ensuring
seamless network access and service delivery.
By ensuring accurate subscriber data the HLR helps support essential
network operations such as call routing, roaming and network handovers.
 Short Message Service Center (SMSC)
The Short Message Service Center (SMSC) takes care of storage,
forwarding, and delivery of SMS (Short Message Service)
messages between mobile devices within the cellular network
infrastructure.
 It’s responsible for the reliable transmission of text messages
(even if the recipient is temporarily unavailable).
As it provides temporary storage of messages it guarantees SMS
messages are delivered even if the receiver’s mobile device is
unable to receive it at the time
 wireless radio
Wireless radio products use wireless signals to transmit and receive
measurement data from flow, level, temperature, pressure, and analytical
process instruments throughout a system or network.
Wireless radio communication allows the reliable transmission of large
amounts of data, making it a popular choice for remote data transfer
applications.
Wireless networks are typically less expensive to install and require less
maintenance than wired networks.
 They provide high-speed data transfer over a vast network and allow
information to be accessed from virtually anywhere and at any time.
 Examples of wireless radio

Wireless radio has been used for many purposes,

including:
 Two-way communication between groups
Maintaining contact with ocean
Remote data transfer
 Wireless PBX (private Branch exchange) system
A wireless PBX system, or wireless Private Branch Exchange, is a
telephone network that uses a mobile network instead of traditional
landlines to connect users within a company.
 It can also add cellular trunks to a business phone system, which can be
useful in areas with limited landlines or internet connections.
Cont.….
PBX (Private Branch Exchange) is a private telephone network used
within a company or organization to facilitate calls between users
internally and to offer multiple lines for external communication,
through trunks.
 Types of PBX Systems
Traditional PBX
The traditional, or analog PBX, has been around since the early 70’s.
 It connects through the POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) lines to the
telephone company.
 All calls going through an analog PBX are transmitted through physical
phone lines.
When traditional PBX was first introduced, it was a huge step in improving
the reliability and speed of connecting businesses and employees over the
telephone.
Analog phone lines use copper lines, and have limited capacity compared to
the modern PBX systems available today
Cont.…
 VoIP or IP PBX

A more current version of PBX is the VoIP (Voice Over Internet

Protocol) or IP (Internet Protocol) PBX.
This newer PBX has the same basic functionality, but with a lot
more door bell and signals made possible by the digital
connection.
The company still maintains a central box on site, but every
single piece of equipment does not need to be hardwired into it to
function.
It’s also a more cost-effective solution since physical cabling
connections are not required.
 Cloud PBX
The next level is a Cloud PBX, also known as Hosted PBX, and is
provided solely over the internet and administered by a third-
party service provider.
This is similar to the VoIP PBX, but without any equipment
requirements (other than the desk phones you decide to use).
There are also more benefits including device flexibility,
scalability, and very little set up time.
 The service provider takes care of system maintenance and
updates to the system.
Cont.….
Benefits of PBX
Easily transfer calls between employees and
departments.
Ability to create “rules” for incoming and outgoing
phone calls.
Support a call center queue.
 Satellite voice services
Satellite voice services are a type of telecommunication service that allows
users to make phone calls and communicate using satellites.
Satellite voice services are available through a variety of providers, and it can
be useful to consider the provider when choosing a service.
Satellite communication can experience high levels of latency, which is the
delay between when a signal is sent and received.
 This can lead to delayed feedback when communicating by voice over a
satellite phone
 Satellite Communication?
Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to
another using a communication satellite in orbit around the Earth.
A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that transmits the
signal via a transponder by creating a channel between the transmitter
and the receiver at different Earth locations.
Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use
satellite communications.
 Believe it or not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around
in space above your heads.
 Cont.…
satellite communication, in telecommunications, the use of artificial
satellites to provide communication links between various points on
Earth.
Satellite communications play a vital role in the global
telecommunications system.
 Need for Satellite Communication

We know that there are different ways to communicate, and the
propagation of these waves can occur in different ways.
Ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation are the two ways
communication takes place for a certain distance.
 The maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km, which was
overcome by the introduction of satellite communication.
 How Satellite Communications Work?
The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help
us bounce signals such as radio, internet data, and television from one
side of the earth to another.
Three stages are involved, which explain the working of satellite
communications. These are:
Uplink
Transponders
Downlink
Cont.….
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television.
 In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the other
side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground
station on the earth.
 This process is known as uplink.
The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers,
amplifiers, and transmitters.
These transponders boost the incoming signal and change its
frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered.
Cont.…
Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the
other end of the receiver on the earth.
 It is important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and
multiple downlinks.
Cont.…
 wireless considerations for a data
communications strategy
When considering wireless for a data communications strategy, we can consider
things like:
Security
 Cybercriminals are increasingly looking for ways to access data transmitted over the
internet, so it's important to consider security.
Some things you can do to help secure your wireless network include:
WPA3 (Wifi protected access): This security protocol makes it harder for hackers to
crack network passwords. It's required in Wi-Fi devices.
Encryption: Encrypting data scrambles it so that only authorized users can read and
decrypt it.
Virtual private networks (VPNs): When connecting to public Wi-Fi, you can use a
VPN to encrypt your data
 Cont.….
Coverage
Coverage is an important metric in wireless communication systems.
 Uplink communication coverage is usually shorter than downlink
communication coverage.
Network integration
Network integration helps teams identify network visibility and integration
needs.
For example, some APs require more power than newer Power over Ethernet
(PoE) standards support.
Redundancy
Redundancy is an important consideration when using IP connectivity.
 CDPD (cellular digital packet data) as a wireless option
Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) was a wireless data service used to access
the Internet and other packet-switched systems over a cellular network.
CDPD was normally used by analog advanced mobile phone system (AMPS)
standards and was one of the first generation cellular frequencies.
It allowed for the transmission of digital packet data over existing cellular
networks, enabling mobile devices to access the internet and other data
services.
However, CDPD has become largely outdated due to the development of
newer and faster wireless data technologies, such as 3G and 4G.
 Cont.…
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) is a wireless data communication
technology that allows for the transmission of digital packets over existing
cellular networks, providing a more efficient use of available bandwidth and
faster data transfer rates.
CDPD supports both data and voice communication, functioning as an
overlay network on top of traditional cellular networks.
As a result, it enables users to send and receive data even while on a voice
call without any interruptions or drops in quality.
Although CDPD has been largely replaced by newer technologies such as
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and 3G or 4G networks
 the principles of packet-switched wireless communication first established
by CDPD continue to play a vital role in modern mobile data
communication standards.
 specialized mobile radio service
SMR is a type of two-way radio system used by many industries.
 It's an alternative to standard cell phone communication.
Two or more receivers are linked on a single network.
This allows secure communication between members of a team, or
different members of a particular organization.
This type of communication system can be either digital or analog.
 Users may have special dialing codes for additional security.
Components of specialized mobile radio service
Base Station Transmitters: These transmit signals to and from
mobile radio units.
Antennas: Used for signal transmission and reception.
End User Radio Equipment: Includes mobile radio units provided by
users or obtained from the SMR operator.
Modes of Operation:
Interconnected Mode: Connects mobile radio units to the public switched
telephone network (PSTN), allowing them to function as mobile telephones.
Dispatch Mode: Enables two-way voice communication between mobile units
or between mobile and fixed units.
 Cont.…
Familiar examples of SMR use include emergency services such as the
police and ambulance service.
 Other business examples include taxicabs, delivery drivers, heavy good
vehicle operators, and security services
Classification Of wireless network
WPANs (Wireless Personal Area Networks)
are short-range wireless networks that connect devices within a few
meters, such as Bluetooth headphones, keyboards, mice, and
smartwatches.
WPANs use low-power radio waves and have a data rate of up to 25
Mbps.
WPANs are suitable for personal use and small-scale applications,
such as wireless printing, file sharing, and health monitoring.

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Cont.…

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 Types of WPAN technologies
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is used for connecting various devices including smartphones;

Since its initiation till now, Bluetooth remains one of the most widely used
WPAN technologies even today.
 It's known for being easy-to-use having low power consumption capabilities
that make it compatible across a range of devices like laptops, smartphones,
wearables & more making it an essential tool for modern-day wireless
communication.
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 Cont.…
For instance, BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) allows wearable tech products
(smartwatches/fitness trackers) to communicate efficiently without draining
battery life quickly.
With every new version launched, this technology continues to evolve
responding effectively to user needs by providing reliable connectivity
solutions.
 For example, the implementation of mesh networking fosters many-to-many
connections instead of traditional pairings expanding possible applications
which includes IoT-based systems at homes/scale industry automations
where numerous nodes require seamless network spectrum links.

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 Cont.….
Zigbee
 Zigbee finds its applications in home automation & smart metering Zigbee is one of the most used low-

power wireless technologies in WPANs governed by Zigbee Alliance.

 It enables reliable transmission of small data packets making it ideal for home automation or building

control systems applications.

 Zigbee can support thousands of connected devices simultaneously without affecting throughput speed

or latency.
 Maximum speed of 250 KBPS at 2.4 GHZ

 Zigbee is used by a variety of cable and telecommunication companies in their set-top boxes, satellite

transceivers and home gateways to provide home monitoring and energy management products to their

customers.
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 UWB

Ultra-Wideband (UWB) provides short-range high data rate

communications high frequency 5G cellular service.
Another popular technology utilized by WPANS is UWB
which utilizes broad spectrum frequencies to transfer large
amounts of data quickly over shorter distances without
requiring external positioning systems like GPS - this makes
them convenient solutions primarily utilized by IoT-related
industries involved in areas such as smart homes where user
locations play an essential role controlling lights/temperature
settings automatically via indoor location-based services
needing high accuracy within centimeters.
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  WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks)
Are medium-range wireless networks that connect devices within a few
hundred meters, such as Wi-Fi routers, laptops, smartphones, and
tablets.
WLANs use radio waves in the 2.4 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 4.9 GHz, 5 GHz,
and 5.9 GHz bands and have a data rate of up to 10 Gbps.
WPANs are suitable for personal use and small-scale applications, such
as wireless printing, file sharing, and health monitoring.
WLANs are suitable for home and office use and provide internet
access, network security, and multimedia streaming.

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Cont.…

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 WMANs (Wireless Metropolitan Area
Networks)
Are long-range wireless networks that connect devices within a few
kilometers, such as WiMAX base stations, antennas, and modems.
WMANs use radio waves in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz, and 5.8
GHz bands and have a data rate of up to 1 Gbps.
WMANs are suitable for urban and rural use and provide broadband
access, voice over IP, and video conferencing.

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Cont.…

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  WWANs (Wireless Wide Area Networks)
are very long-range wireless networks that connect devices across the
globe, such as cellular towers, satellites, and mobile phones.
WWANs use radio waves in the 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1.8
GHz, 1.9 GHz, 2.1 GHz, 2.6 GHz, and 3.5 GHz bands and have a data
rate of up to 100 Mbps.
WWANs are suitable for mobile and remote use and provide voice, text,
email, web browsing, and GPS services.

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Cont.…

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 Types of WLANs

Infrastructure:
In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to a base station and
communicate through that; and this can also enable internet access.
A WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless router (base station)
and an endpoint (computer, mobile phone, etc).
An office or home WiFi connection is an example of Infrastructure mode.

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 Cont.…
Ad Hoc:
 In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station, like a computer
workstation.
An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up
 it provides peer-to-peer communication.
It requires two or more endpoints with built-in radio transmission.

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 Characteristics of WLAN

Seamless (unbroken) operation.

Low power for battery use.

Simple management, easy to use for everyone.

Protection of skill in wired networks.

Strong transmission technology.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of WLAN
Advantages Disadvantages
Installation speed and simplicity. Slower bandwidth.

Installation flexibility. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.

Reduced cost of ownership. Less capacity (volume).

Reliability. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired

network cards.
Mobility Wireless devices emit low levels of RF

Robustness (quality of communication)

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IEEE802.11 (WLAN) Standards

The 802.11 wireless standards can differ in terms of speed,

transmission ranges, and frequency used, but in terms of actual
implementation they are similar.
 All standards can use either an infrastructure or ad hoc network
design, and each can use the same security protocols.

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 IEEE 802.11
There were actually two variations on the initial 802.11 wireless standard.
Both offered 1 or 2 Mbps transmission speeds and the same RF of 2.4GHz.
The difference between the two was in how data traveled through the RF
media.
The original 802.11 standards are far too slow for modern networking
needs and are now no longer deployed.

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 Cont.…
IEEE 802.11a:
In terms of speed, the 802.11a standard was far ahead of the original
802.11 standards.
802.11a specified speeds of up to 54Mbps in the 5GHz band, but most
commonly, communication takes place at 6Mbps, 12Mbps, or 24Mbps.
802.11a is incompatible with the 802.11b and 802.11g wireless
standards.

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Cont.…
IEEE 802.11b:
The 802.11b standard provides for a maximum transmission speed of
11Mbps.
 However, devices are designed to be backward-compatible with
previous 802.11 standards that provided for speeds of 1, 2, and
5.5Mbps.
802.11b uses a 2.4GHz RF range and is compatible with 802.11g.
IEEE 802.11g:
802.11g is a popular wireless standard today. 802.11g offers wireless
transmission over distances of 150 feet and speeds up to 54 Mbps
compared with the 11Mbps of the 802.11b standard.
Like 802.11b, 802.11g operates in the 2.4GHz range and therefore is
compatible with it.
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 IEEE 802.11n
The newest of the wireless standards is 802.11n.
 The goal of the 802.11n standard is to significantly increase
throughput in both the 2.4GHz and the 5GHz frequency range.
The baseline goal of the standard was to reach speeds of 100
Mbps, but given the right conditions, it is estimated that the
802.11n speeds might reach a amazing 600Mbps.
In practical operation, 802.11n speeds will be much slower .

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 Wireless sensor network (WSN)
Is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in a
large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used
to monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that
manages and monitors the environment in a particular area.
 They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing
unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet
to share data.

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Cont.…

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 Components of WSN:

Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which
is used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical
signals.
Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the
WLAN access point.
It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and
power source.

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 Cont.…
WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally
through the internet.
Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software
called as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for
further processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis,
storage, and mining of the data.

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Challenges of WSN:
Quality of Service
Security Issue
Energy Efficiency
Network Throughput
Performance
Ability to manage with node failure
Cross layer optimization
Scalability to large scale of deployment
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Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to
deploy, making them a cost-effective solution for many applications.
Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired
connections, which can be costly and difficult to install.
Wireless communication also enables flexible deployment and
reconfiguration of the network.
Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to
conserve energy, enabling long-term operation without the need for
frequent battery replacements.

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 Cont.…
Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing
sensors, making them suitable for a range of applications and
environments.
Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical
phenomena in the environment, providing timely information for decision
making and control.
Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited,
which can be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments
with obstacles that obstruct radio signals.

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 Cont.…
Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have
limited processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform
complex computations or support advanced applications.
Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as
eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can
compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to
interference from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade
the quality of data transmission.
Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the
need for proper sensor placement, power management, and network
configuration, which can require significant time and resources.
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Wireless Adhoc Network Wireless Sensor Network
 Application independent network is used.  The application-dependent network is used.
 Query-based (data-centric routing) or location-based
 Hop-to-Hop routing takes place.
routing takes place.
 It is heterogeneous in type.  It is homogeneous in type.
 The traffic pattern is any-to-any, many-to-one, many-to-
 The traffic pattern is point-to-point.
few, and one-to-many.
 Wireless router is used as an inter-connecting  Application level gateway is used as an interconnecting
device. device.
 The data rate is high.  The data rate is low.
 Supports common services.  Supports specific applications.
 Traffic triggering depends on application needs.  Triggered by sensing events.

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 Applications of WSN:
Internet of Things (IoT)
Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat
detection
Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
Noise Level of the surrounding
Medical applications like patient monitoring
Agriculture
Landslide Detection
01/06/2025 75
 wireless communication as an alternative to
fixed media
Advantages of wireless network
• High accessibility for workers and users, allowing them
greater mobility by not being “stable” to a fixed connection
point.
• Flexibility when installing, both in the home and in
complex industrial and business environments (large
warehouses, offices, commercial premises…).

01/06/2025 76
 Cont.….
• Cost reduction: for businesses as there is no need to spend on
infrastructure installation (no need for construction or wiring
work).
Additionally, wireless technology is cost-effective, so it does not
require a large financial investment.
• Maximize connection reach: by reaching any point or area, even
in the most complex or demanding situations.
• Scalability: that allows the addition of new devices without the
need to install new wiring.

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 Disadvantages of using wireless networks
Among the disadvantages of wireless networks, we can mention:

Potential security risks.

Lower connection speed and higher latency compared to wired networks.

Sensitivity to interference caused by electromagnetic signals.

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 mobile computing
Mobile computing is the ability to connect portable
devices to wireless-enabled networks to access data and
services while on the move.
It is a convenient technique to transmit and receive voice,
text, audio, and video with no temporal or special
constraints

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 Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the

working of mobile computing technology.
 In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure that ensures
seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices.
The mobile communication framework consists of communication devices
such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and
support the stated services.
These devices are responsible for delivering a smooth communication
process.

01/06/2025 80
Cont.…

01/06/2025 81
 Cont.….
Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices
are fixed at a position, and they are connected through a physical
link to communicate with other devices.
For Example, Desktop Computer.
Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the
devices are fixed at a position, and they are connected through a
wireless link to make communication with other devices.
For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

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 Cont.…
Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some
devices are wired, and some are mobile. They altogether make
communication with other devices.
For Example, Laptops.
Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the
devices can communicate with each other irrespective of their
position. They can also connect to any network without the use of
any wired device.
For Example, WiFi Dongle (such as flash) by plug in and plug out

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 Protection of mobile devices
laptop or internet-enabled device can be protected by using the following
mechanism
 Password-protect your computer - Make sure that you have to enter a password to
log in to your computer or mobile device (see Choosing and Protecting Passwords for
more information).
 Keep your valuables with you at all times - When traveling, keep your device with
you.
 If you are attending a conference or trade show, be especially wary—these venues
offer thieves a wider selection of devices that are likely to contain sensitive
information, and the conference sessions offer more opportunities for thieves to access
guest rooms.
 Moderate your laptop or mobile device - There is no need to advertise to thieves
that you have a laptop or mobile device. Avoid using your device in public areas, and
consider
01/06/2025 non-traditional bags for carrying your laptop. 84
 Cont.…
 Be aware of your surroundings - If you do use your laptop or mobile
device in a public area, pay attention to people around you.
Consider an alarm or lock - Many companies sell alarms or locks that you
can use to protect or secure your laptop.
 Back up your files - If your mobile device is stolen, it's bad enough that
someone else may be able to access your information.
To avoid losing all of the information, make backups of important
information and store the backups in a separate location.

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 Steps of security
1. Protect your data
Strong passwords and additional account security measures are an effective
way
to prevent unauthorized access to computers, devices, networks and data.
 Keep all your devices secure using password or PIN protection.
 Use strong passwords, resetting them when required, and changing
default passwords.
security to your accounts by confirming the identity of the user.

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 2. Prevent Malware

Malicious software (malware) can cause untold damage to computers, devices and
an
organization's data.
The following steps will assist greatly in preventing malware attacks.
 Ensure your anti-virus software is turned on, kept up to date, and regularly
perform system scans.
 Don't download or install third party software and apps from unknown sources.
 Encourage staff to only transfer files over the network, via email or secure
cloud storage, rather than removable media (e.g. USB drives, optical disks etc.).
Always keep your firewall turned on, and ensure that is has been configured
correctly.
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 3. Avoid Phishing Attacks

Phishing attacks are scam emails, usually masquerading as a trustworthy person or

organization.
They might ask for personal information, or provide links and attachments to malicious
websites or malware.
 Don’t browse the web or access email accounts on accounts with administrator
privileges.
 Perform anti-virus scans for malware and change passwords if you suspect or
identify an attack or compromised account.
 Is the sender's email address legitimate? Is the email unexpected or suspicious?
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 4. Backup your data
Backing up your data regularly and testing restoration will reduce the impact
and inconvenience of any data lost from theft, physical damage or malicious
software such as ransomware.
 Consider complete backups of systems and data, but if this is not practical,
decide what data your organization needs to keep running and how often this
data should be backed up.
 Store your backups in a different location to your original data - consider
using the cloud.

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 5. Keep your devices safe

Businesses are using mobile devices more and more to perform work tasks.
This can introduce risks, so it’s important to ensure the appropriate security
measures are implemented.
 Protect your devices using a password, PIN, or biometric identification
such as fingerprints.
 Set up device tracking and remote wiping to prevent your data being
compromised if you lose your device.
 Keep all your devices and apps up to date.
 Use mobile data (3/4/5G), rather than connecting to public Wi-Fi hotspots
when sending or receiving sensitive data.
 Out of date devices that no longer receive updates should be replaced.

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Cont.…

01/06/2025 91
 CHAPTER TWO

DEVELOPING A COST-EFFECTIVE
STRATEGY FOR WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS

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 wireless network technologies and service
providers
Wireless networking, or WiFi, is a very popular wireless networking
technology today.
There are more than several hundreds of millions of WiFi devices.
 Essentially, a wireless network allows devices to remain linked to the
network without any cables attached, providing greater convenience
and mobility for the user.
Wireless networks operate using radio frequency (RF) technology,
which generates an electromagnetic field when an RF current is
supplied to an antenna.

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 Wireless network technologies
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity.
 Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve connection to the Internet without a
direct cable between device and Internet Service Provider.
Wi-Fi enabled device and wireless router are required for setting up a Wi-Fi
connection.
 These are some characteristics of wireless Internet connection −
Range of 100 yards
Insecure connection
Throughput of 10-12 Mbps
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 WiMax
To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections, WiMax (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) was developed
 WiMax is a collection of wireless communication standards based on IEEE
802.16.
WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media access control (MAC)
options.
WiMax Forum, established in 2001, is the principal body responsible to ensure
conformity and interoperability among various commercial vendors.
These are some of the characteristics of WiMax −
Broadband wireless access
Range of 6 miles
Multilevel encryption available
01/06/2025 Throughput of 72 Mbps 95
 The main components of a WiMax unit are −

WiMax Base Station − It is a tower similar to mobile towers and

connected to Internet through high speed wired connection.
WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) − It is a WiMax version of wireless
modem.
 The only difference is that modem is connected to the Internet through
cable connection whereas WiMax SU receives Internet connection
wirelessly through microwaves.

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 Circuit switched network
Circuit-Switched Network – a type of network where the
communications between end devices (nodes) must be set up before they
can communicate.
Once set up, the “circuit” is dedicated to the two nodes it connects for the
duration of that connection.
An example of a circuit-switched network is an analog telephone network
Data can be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is
established.

01/06/2025 97
Cont.…

01/06/2025 98
 Phases of Circuit Switching

A. Circuit Establishment:
A dedicated circuit between the source and destination is constructed via a
number of intermediary switching center’s.
Communication signals can be requested and received when the sender
and receiver communicate signals over the circuit.

01/06/2025 99
 Cont.…
Data Transfer: Data can be transferred between the source and
destination once the circuit has been established. The link between the two
parties remains as long as they communicate.
Circuit Disconnection: Disconnection in the circuit occurs when one of
the users initiates the disconnect. When the disconnection occurs, all
intermediary linkages between the sender and receiver are terminated

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 Packet switching network
divides transmitted data into smaller packets that travel independently
across the network.
 Each packet contains part of the data plus destination information, allowing
for efficient and flexible transfer.
 Packets adapt to network traffic by finding the best routes.
This method breaks down messages into packets that traverse different paths
and reassemble at the destination, ensuring reliability and efficiency.
If one path is congested or fails, others are available, enhancing the
robustness of data transmission across digital networks

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 Choosing an architecture and access
method
Continuous connection architecture
Development of high-quality complex software, in particular in modern
embedded and cyber-physical systems, requires careful attention to the
software architecture and design in order to achieve the desired quality
attributes.
The architecture considers network transparency, geographical
location transparency, and performance transparency, with strong
support for mapping between an identifier space of the Internet and
geographical location information.
The architecture is defined by continuous Internet connectivity functions.

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 Email base system
Electronic mail, commonly shortened to “email,” is a communication
method that uses electronic devices to deliver messages across computer
networks.
"Email" refers to both the delivery system and individual messages that are
sent and received.
Modern forms of email became available for widespread public use with the
development of email client software (e.g. Outlook) and web browsers, the
latter of which enables users to send and receive messages over the Internet
using web-based email clients (e.g. Gmail).
Today, email is one of the most popular methods of digital communication.

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 Once an email message has been sent, it follows several steps to its
final destination:
1.The sender’s mail server, also called a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA), initiates a
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) connection.
2.The SMTP checks the email envelope data — the text that tells the server where to send a
message — for the recipient’s email address, then uses the Domain Name System (DNS) to
translate the domain name into an IP address.
3.The SMTP looks for a mail exchange (MX) server associated with the recipient’s domain
name. If one exists, the email is forwarded to the recipient’s mail server.
4.The email is stored on the recipient’s mail server and may be accessed via the Post Office
Protocol (POP)* or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). These two protocols
function slightly differently:
POP downloads the email to the recipient’s device and deletes it from the mail server,
while IMAP stores the email within the email client, allowing the recipient to access it
from any connected device.
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 Agent Based Modeling
Agent-based modeling (ABM) is a technique for modeling complex
systems to gain a deeper understanding of system behaviors
 They simulate how all kinds of people, regulators, corporations, banks,
or investors interact with one other and how that interaction could cause
specific things to happen to them and to financial markets more broadly.
ABMs are increasingly showing themselves to be the way forward for
financial services, but internal inertia and lack of knowledge seems to be
a barrier to deployment

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 Components of Agent based modeling
Agent:
ABMs contain autonomous models called agents.
 These agents can be an individual, a group of individuals, or even an
organization.
 Each agent is defined with properties of its own along with relationships with
other agents.
Topology
The topology of an ABM is the mechanism through which agents can interact
with one another in the model.
Environment
Environmental factors can generally be thought of as shocks that occur to the
model
01/06/2025 106
Cont.…

Enterprise simulation software

SME (Small and Medium size

enterprise)
01/06/2025 107
Remote Access
Remote access is the ability of users to access a device or a network
from any location.
With that access, users can manage files and data that are stored on a
remote device, allowing for continued collaboration and productivity
from anywhere.
Remote access is the ability for an authorized person to access a
computer or network.

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 Benefits of Remote Access
The benefits of remote access are fairly clear.
Quick Response Times
Remote access tools help administrators respond to issues as quickly as
possible.
 Rather than having to be on-site to resolve issues, many situations can
be handled with remote tools.
Often times, these tools can be administered from laptops, tablets, or
even mobile phones.
Administrators can be on call 24/7, without having to come to the office.

01/06/2025 109
 Cont.…
Cost Savings
Downtime has a real-time financial effect.
Remote access gives businesses the option to resolve issues faster and get things back up
and running more quickly than ever.
Businesses that are seeking cost savings in hiring a managed service provider are able to
do so without sacrificing quality thanks to remote access tools.
Any Device, Any Location
As discussed previously, remote access tools can be administered by many different types
of devices.
Furthermore, they can also support these different types of devices as well.
Remote access isn't limited only to servers, client devices can be controlled as well.
This includes mobile devices as well as PCs. Remote support can be offered in the office
or on the go.
 Location
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 Disadvantages of remote access
While remote access enables gains in productivity and engagement, there are
a few drawbacks to keep in mind:
Efficiency: Accessing systems remotely can slow performance with higher
server latency and a longer feedback loop when on-premises infrastructure
changes are made.
Reliability: Internet connectivity and speed impact productivity, as remote
locations can vary considerably in service levels.
Complexity: Permissions management and VPN configuration/authorization
can cost quite a bit of IT time.
And handling remote access issues requires additional system admin skills that
may be lacking.

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 Interactive transaction-based applications
These are applications that execute on a remote computer and that
are accessed by users from their own PCs or terminals.
Obviously, these include web applications such as e-commerce
applications where you can interact with a remote system to buy
goods and services.
This class of application also includes business systems, where a
business provides access to its systems through a web browser or
special-purpose client program and cloud-based services, such as
mail and photo sharing.
Interactive applications often incorporate a large data store that is
accessed and updated in each transaction.
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 mobile enterprise applications
Enterprise mobile applications are software designed for mobile devices such
as smartphones.
 These applications are specifically built by and for individual organizations
or businesses.
 The main aim of enterprise mobile applications is to enable employees to be
more efficient in their work, help companies maximize their revenue streams
and minimize their losses.
Unlike apps that are designed to be used by the general public, enterprise
mobile applications are designed to only be used internally by businesses for
specific purposes.
These applications are usually restricted and can only be used by authorized
employees
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 Types of Enterprise Mobile Apps

The types of enterprise mobile apps can vary depending on customer or

employee needs. Let's explore the most common types and their
examples:
Employee productivity apps:
These apps help employees perform their tasks more efficiently.
 For example, Microsoft Teams allows for seamless communication and
collaboration within organizations.

01/06/2025 114
 Cont.…
Customer relationship management (CRM) apps:
 CRM apps like Salesforce Mobile provide sales and marketing teams
with real-time access to customer data, enhancing customer interactions
and improving sales processes.
Field service apps:
Field service apps, such as Service Max, enable field technicians to
manage work orders, update job statuses, and access customer information
remotely.

01/06/2025 115
 Cont.…
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) apps:
 ERP apps like SAP (system application and product) offer a mobile
interface for managing business processes, such as finance, HR, and
supply chain operations.
E-commerce and retail apps:
 Retail giants like Walmart use enterprise mobile apps to streamline
inventory management, sales, and customer service, integrating
seamlessly into their backend systems.

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 CHAPTER THREE

WIRELESS NETWORK
SECURITY

01/06/2025 117
 Introduction to wireless security
Wireless Network provides various comfort to end users but actually they are very
complex in their working.
There are many protocols and technologies working behind to provide a stable
connection to users.
Data packets traveling through wire provide a sense of security to users as data traveling
through wire probably not heard by eavesdroppers (Listeners).
To secure the wireless connection, we should focus on the following areas –
Identify endpoint of wireless network and end-users i.e.,
Authentication.
Protecting wireless data packets from middleman i.e., Privacy.
Keeping the wireless data packets together i.e., Integrity.
118
 Cont.…
Wireless security is the prevention of unauthorized access or damage
to computers or data using wireless networks, which include Wi-Fi
networks (WLAN
 The most common type is Wi-Fi security, which includes Wired
Equivalent Privacy (WEP, now considered unsecure) and Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA, current standard WPA2 with 256-bit
encryption).
Lacking wireless security in a local network, could expose personal
computers and devices to a wide array of cyberattacks, from installing
malware and spoofing websites to intercepting user credentials and
system access.
Furthermore, in an industrial setting, machine to machine
communications can also be prone to exposure.
119
 Cont.…
Typical attacks include man-in-the-middle, MAC spoofing, rogue
access points.
Countermeasures against attacks on wireless networks includes
hiding the SSID (making the network invisible)
using a certificate-based system to authenticate the connecting
device based on MAC-address (now deemed unsecure)
use of security tokens (a form of two-factor authentication)
 static IP addressing
 (end-to-end) encrypting communication,
Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems (WIPS)
 Wireless Intrusion Detection Systems (WIDS)

120
 Types of wireless security protocols

Most wireless APs come with the ability to enable one of four
wireless encryption standards:
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
WPA2
WPA3

121
 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
WEP was designed to secure wireless networks using encryption and access restriction.

While WEP initially provided encryption similar to wired networks, its flaws were widely
exploited by hackers, making it obsolete (outdated).
The protocol’s termination created more robust alternatives, such as WPA (Wi-Fi
Protected Access).
Despite its flaws, WEP’s simplicity and widespread adoption originally drew attention, but
its inherent vulnerabilities eventually overshadowed its benefits, emphasizing the
significance of constantly updating wireless security standards.

122
 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
WPA, emerged as an effective successor to WEP, addressing its flaws.
WPA uses the temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP) encryption to improve key
management and integrity checks.
It has two modes:
 WPA-Personalfor home networks
 and WPA-Enterprise for enterprises that use RADIUS servers .
WPA’s 128-bit encryption provides enhanced protection over WEP’s weaker encryption
standards.
Furthermore, adopting WPA may necessitate hardware modifications, providing a
problem for users with older equipment.

123
 Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2)
WPA2,is the most popular wireless security standard that uses the AES
encryption technique to provide strong security.
Its advantages over WPA include better administration and lower
vulnerability to attacks.
WPA2 is widely adopted as the industry standard, ensuring device
interoperability.
However, vulnerabilities such as the key reinstallation attack (KRACK)
constitute a security risk.

124
 Wi-Fi Protected Access III (WPA3)
WPA3, provides greater encryption, protection against dictionary brute force attacks, and
simpler device configuration via Wi-Fi Easy Connect.
 Despite these improvements, widespread acceptance is slow.
WPA3 comes in three types:
 WPA3-Personal for home use,
 WPA3-Enterprise for organizational settings,
 Wi-Fi Enhanced Open for non-password-protected networks.
While it enhances overall network security, drawbacks include deployment complexity,
low user adoption, and compatibility issues with older devices and equipment.
 Despite its benefits, full-scale deployment of WPA3 has yet to occur, signaling a slow shift
from older security protocols to this more modern standard.

125
 wireless LAN vulnerability

Even with the physical security of hardware ensured, a WLAN can still be left
exposed as a result of vulnerabilities within the WLAN hardware.
These vulnerabilities can be in the form of insecure firmware (inappropriate
software) and misconfigured hardware.

126
 WLAN HARDWARE MISCONFIGURATION
If WLAN hardware is not hardened, (i.e. its settings are changed to meet security
requirements) it’s likely that services, which are routinely left running (e.g. telnet /
SSH), would be vulnerable to a range of attacks.
One way of reducing the likelihood of an attack is by changing the default credentials
of your WLAN!

127
 Outdated operating system.
When an operating system is released, it is secure or at least as it can be for the
moment.
But once good-guy and bad-guy hackers take a look at it enclose, they discover
vulnerabilities.
When on an unprotected network, criminals can use software programs that search out
vulnerabilities from outdated, unpatched software on your devices
once found, they use whatever tools are available to take advantage of those
vulnerabilities and dig deeper into your devices.

128
 Traffic Redirection
An intruder can change the route of the traffic, causing packets intended
for a particular computer to be redirected to the attacking station.

Rogue Access Points:

A rogue AP is one that is installed by an attacker (usually in public areas like shared
office space, airports, etc.) to accept traffic from wireless clients to whom it appears
as a valid Authenticator.
 Packets thus captured can be used to extract sensitive information, or for launching
further attacks by, for example, modifying the content of the captured packet and re-
insert it into the network.
129
 Poorly secured wireless.
Protected WiFi that employs WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), is
vulnerable.
WEP, is the original version of wireless network security.

Over the past decade and a half, however, WEP has been cracked, hacked
and decimated.

130
 Man-in-the-middle attack.
When you are on an unprotected network and another device intercepts or
eavesdrops on your internet communications, then communicates with the
designated website acting as though it is you, the other device communicates with
the website and the website has no idea it is communicating with an attacker.

131
 WLAN security Mechanisms
Most of wireless network device vendor’s and Internet Service provider do not provide any
security settings by default and leave the customer to find for herself.
 So make sure, your network is secured from being maliciously used.

There is no silver bullet that will protect your wireless network infrastructure.

However, some countermeasures listed below that should be used in conjunction with
each other to secure your wireless network to the highest level.

132
 A. Use most secure possible encryption:
The first and most necessary step- use industry standard encryptions.

The old (however generally used) WEP-Wired Equivalent Privacy, has

been known to be broken.
Even you use complex passwords it can be broken and decrypted within
minutes or hours.

133
 B. Use Firewall
All the wireless routers come with built-in firewalls.

Enable them with all the security features.

 You should block any anonymous ping requests and place restrictions on
website browsing, if required.
Define additional security policies and apply them

134
 C. Have a monitoring system in place
There’s a saying- prevention is better than a treatment.

If you are able to detect some suspicious activities before it penetrates
your network, you can block them or take precautionary measures.
Deploy WIPS (wireless intrusion prevention system) WIDS (wireless
intrusion detection) for monitoring suspicious activities.

135
 D. Don’t use default credentials
Every wireless router comes with a set of default username/password.
Sometimes, people don’t change them and keep using them for long time.
Username and passwords are used by computers or other devices to
connect to wireless router.
If any hacker is able to guess them, he can connect to your network easily.
Studies show that majority of users use the same combination of
username/passwords as set by manufacturers.
 Some default username combinations are: admin/admin,
admin/password or admin/

136
E. Disable Auto-connect feature:
Some devices or the computers/laptops have ‘Let this tool manage
your wireless networks’ or ‘Connect automatically to available
network’.
Such users having this auto-connect feature enabled are prone to
Phishing attack or Rogue AP attack.
Attackers keep their APs alive and kicking for such kind of
unsuspecting users.
The user will never suspect them and keep surfing the wireless
network happily.
Also if you have not changed the default password of your router, the
attacker will try to use this feature on their machine and automatically
connect using the easily guessable default passwords .
137
 F. Change the default SSID:

Although this will not prevent hackers breaking into a network, using a
default SSID acts as an indication that the user is careless.
So he may be an obvious target to explore further to see if he still uses the
default passwords as well

138
G. Restrict access by assigning static IP addresses and MAC filtering:

Disable automatic IP assigning feature and use private static IPs to the
legitimate devices you 115 want to connect.
This will help you in blocking unwanted devices from being connected to
your network.
Also, enable MAC filtering- router remembers MAC of each and every
device connected to it and saves it as list.
You can use this facility to restrict access.
Only a set of trusted devices can be allowed to connect.
However MAC spoofing is still possible but it raises an extra bar for
your wireless network

139
H. Turn off your router when not in use:

Last but not least, a little obvious, but it will save your network from
all the attacks for that time period.

140
 Securing wireless transmission using VPN

VPN is a mechanism of employing encryption, authentication, and

integrity protection so that we can use a public network as if it is a private
network.
 It offers a high amount of security and allows users to remotely access
private networks.

141
 VPN
Provides a scalable authentication and encryption solution

Does require end user configuration and a strong

knowledge of VPN technology
Users must re-authenticate if roaming between VPN
servers
VPN Architecture
VPN Architecture…….
 VLANs
Combine wireless networks on one VLAN segment, even
geographically separated networks.
VLAN tagging to create a wireless subnet and a VPN gateway for
authentication and encryption
VLAN Architecture
 Wireless Security Policy
Secure communications: Encrypt data that travels on the network,
and authenticate users to be sure you know who is using the WLAN.
Cisco supports all industry-standard encryption and authentication
methods for the broadest client device compatibility.
Use strong encryption: As soon as you install your network, set up
the strongest wireless encryption you can.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption is adequate, but WPA and
WPA2 give you stronger options

147
 Cont.….
Change the default network name:
When you set up your network equipment, change the default name to make
it more difficult for hackers to find.
Do not choose your company name, company phone number, or other
information about your company that is easy to guess or find on the Internet.
Use VLANs or MAC address control lists combined with encryption to
restrict user access.
148
 Cont.….
Implement Cisco secure guest access features to allow visitors to
connect to the network or Internet while keeping your business
 network and resources separate and secure
Be sure that management ports are secured.
Physically hide or secure access points to prevent tampering.
In many buildings, Cisco access points can be installed in the meeting
space above the ceiling, providing optimal coverage in a secure location.
Use video surveillance cameras to monitor your office building and site
for suspicious activity.

149
 CHAPTER FOUR

AN EMERGING MOBILE (CELLULAR)

NETWORK SERVICE

150
 Introduction
Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) is a data-over-cellular standard for
providing LAN-like service over cellular voice networks.
Cellular Digital Packet Data employs digital modulation and signal
processing techniques, but it is still an analog transmission.
The CDPD infrastructure employs existing cellular systems to access a
backbone router network that uses the Internet protocol (IP) to transport
user data.
Personal digital assistants, palmtops, and laptops running applications that
use IP can connect to the CDPD service and gain access to other mobile
computer users or to corporate computing resources that rely on wireline
connections.

151
 CDPD Fundamentals
Unlike circuit-switched schemes, which use dialup modems to access the
cellular network, Cellular Digital Packet Data is a packet-switched
technology that relies on wireless modems to send data at a raw speed of
19.2K b/s.
Although CDPD piggybacks on top of the cellular voice infrastructure, it
does not suffer from the 3-KHz limit on voice transmissions.
 Instead, it uses the entire 30-KHz radio frequency (RF) channel during idle
times between voice calls.
Using the entire channel contributes to CDPD's faster and more reliable
data transmission.

152
 Underlying Technologies
CDPD is in fact a combination of digital data transmission,
radio technology, packetization, channel hopping, and
packet switching.
This technology lets the cellular network carry the 1s and 0s
of binary digital code more reliably than is usually possible
over cellular voice networks.

153
 Digital Transmission Technology

Digital transmission technology is reliable and more resistant to radio

interference than analog transmission technology.
The digital signals are broken down into a finite set of bits, rather than
transmitted in a continuous waveform.
 When signal corruption occurs error-detection logic at the receiving end
can reconstruct the corrupted digital signal using error correction
algorithms.
Digital technology also enables processing techniques that compensate for
signal fades without requiring any increase in power.

154
 Digital Cellular Radio Technology

Digital cellular radio technology is used for transmitting data between the
user's mobile unit and the carrier's base station.
Packetization
Packetization divides the data into discrete packets of information before
transmission.
This approach is commonly used in wide area and local computer networks.
In addition to addressing information, each packet includes information that
allows the data to be reassembled in the proper order at the receiving end and
corrected if necessary.

155
 Channel Hopping
Channel hopping automatically searches out idle channel times between
cellular voice calls.
Packets of data select available cellular channels and go out in short bursts
without interfering with voice communications.
Alternatively, cellular carriers may also dedicate voice channels for CDPD
traffic.
Packet Switching
Packet switching, using the Internet protocol (IP), accepts data packets from
multiple users at many different cell sites and routes them to the next
appropriate router on the network.

156
 Applications for CDPD

The wireless-industry group that funded the development of the Cellular

Digital Packet Data specification includes Ameritech Cellular, Bell Atlantic
Mobile, Contel Cellular Inc., GTE Mobilnet, Inc., McCaw Cellular
Communications, Inc., NYNEX Mobile Communications, Air Touch (formerly
PacTel Cellular), and Southwestern Bell Mobile Systems.
 Three principles guided their efforts: that emerging CDPD
recommendations could be deployed rapidly, economically, and in
conjunction with technology already available in the marketplace 157
 Cont.…
More specifically, the association's stated objectives include:
 Ensuring compatibility with existing data networks.
Supporting multiple network protocols.
Applying minimum impact on end systems; existing applications should
operate with little or no modification.
Preserving vendor independence.
Ensuring interoperability among service providers without
compromising their ability to differentiate offerings with service and
feature enhancements.
Allowing subscribers to roam between serving areas
Protecting subscribers from eavesdropping
158
 Emerging Class of Remote Users
CDPD allows traditional wireline networks to reach a new class of remote
user the roaming mobile client.
With the establishment of a wireless link to the cellular carrier’s CDPD
network, remote users can operate their terminals as if they were located on the
desktop in a branch office.
Mobile workers, for example, can regain much of the productivity they lose
while away being from their main offices by using CDPD to send and receive
E-mail from computers or personal digital assistants 159
 Cont.…
Another application example is a debit card. Customers could purchase a
debit card to run through a card-reading device on a bus or another transit
system and the charge would be deducted automatically from the card's total.
That price information could be transmitted to a central processing center in
less than a second for just a few cents.
CDPD could also be used by service providers to monitor and control
devices such as traffic lights, alarm systems, selling machines, and
automated teller machines.
160
 Service Pricing
As an intersection to the existing analog cellular infrastructure, CDPD
networks are easy and economical for carriers to set up and operate.
Carriers estimate that it costs only 5% over the initial cost of a cell site to
upgrade to CDPD.
Cell sites typically cost about $1 million to set up, including the cost of
real estate.

161
 Cont.…
Users are the beneficiaries of CDPD's resulting economies and efficiencies.

 For many applications, initial CDPD service pricing is competitive with that of the
registered analog wireless services.
CDPD is best suited for transaction-oriented applications.

 Although these services might prove too expensive for heavy data base access, the use
of intelligent agents can cut costs by minimizing connection time.

162
 Benefits to Mobile Users
Because CDPD uses the existing voice-oriented cellular network and off-the-
shelf hardware for implementation, it is cost-effective.
There are, however, additional benefits to users besides economy.
These benefits include:
Efficiency:
CDPD transmits both voice conversations and data messages using the same
cellular equipment.
Using a single device, it is a versatile and efficient way to communicate.
The digital data does not interrupt or degrade voice traffic.

163
 Cont.…
Speed
Having a maximum channel speed of 19.2K b/s—a four-fold increase over
competing mobile radio technologies
CDPD is the fastest wireless technology available on the WAN.
Security.
With encryption and authentication procedures built into the specification,
CDPD offers the more robust security than any other native wireless data
transmission method, preventing casual eavesdropping.
 As with wireline networks, users can also customize their own end-to-end
security.

164
 Cont.….
Openness
Because CDPD is an open, nonproprietary standard, it promotes low
equipment costs and broad availability of hardware and software.
Flexibility
Because it uses existing cellular radio technology, CDPD units are
capable of transmitting data over both packet- and circuit-switched
networks, allowing applications to use the best method of communication.

165
Cont.…
Reliability
Because CDPD uses existing equipment on the network (i.e., routers),
as well as time-tested protocols based on TCP/IP, the highest quality of
wireless data service is assured.
CDPD also provides excellent penetration within buildings.
Worldwide Reach.
CDPD can be used in conjunction with existing cellular systems
around the world.
These systems already serve 85% of the world's cellular users.

166
 Equipment Requirements
CDPD is not without its problems.
Even though Cellular Digital Packet Data takes advantage of the existing circuit cellular
voice infrastructure to send data at up to 19.2K b/s, existing cellular modems cannot be
used on CDPD-based networks.
Modems designed for CDPD networks are still larger and more expensive than those
designed for circuit cellular.
CDPD-only modems cost about $500; modems that handle both CDPD and circuit
cellular run about $1,000.
When the cost of CDPD modems drops to the $200 range, expense will no longer be a
barrier.
Also, carriers are considering subsidizing the cost of Cellular Digital Packet Data
modems, the way they currently do with cellular phones, when users sign up for service.

167
 Network Architecture and Protocols

The Cellular Digital Packet Data specification defines all the components
and communications protocols necessary to support mobile communications.

168
 CDPD Network Architecture
Mobile Data-Intermediate Systems
The backbone router, also known as the Mobile Data-Intermediate System (MD-IS),
uses the location information derived from the mobile network location protocol to route
data to the mobile units, which are referred to as Mobile-End Systems (M-ES).
 Information on the link between the backbone router and a Mobile Data Base System is
transmitted using a data link layer (DLL) protocol.
 Communications on the other side of the backbone router are handled using
internationally recognized protocols.
 This ensures that standard, off-the- shelf systems can be used in the network
infrastructure and that computer systems currently in use can be accessed by CDPD
networks without modification.

169
 Mobile Data Base Systems
The mobile data base system (MDBS) provides the relay between the
cellular radio system and the digital data component of the CDPD
network.
The mobile data base system (MDBS) communicates with the mobile
units through radio signals.
Up to 16 mobile units in a sector can use the same cellular channel and
communicate as if they were on a LAN.
This communications technique is known as digital sense multiple
access (DSMA). After the mobile data base system (MDBS) turns the
cellular radio signal into digital data, it transmits the data stream to its
backbone router, typically using frame relay, X.25, or the Point-to-Point
Protocol.
170
Cont.…

171
 Mobile-End Systems
Although the physical location of a mobile-end system, or mobile unit, may change as the
user's location changes, continuous network access is maintained.
 The Cellular Digital Packet Data specification specifies that there will be no changes to
protocols above the network layer of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model, so that applications software will operate in the Cellular Digital Packet Data
environment.
 At the network sublayer and below, mobile units and backbone routers cooperate to allow
the equipment of mobile subscribers to move transparently from cell to cell, or roam from
network to network.
This mobility is accomplished transparently to the network layer and above.

172
 Mobility Management
Traditionally, the network address of the end system has been used to determine the
route used to reach that end system.
Cellular Digital Packet Data is unique in allowing mobile units to roam freely, changing
their subnetwork point of attachment at any time— even in midsession.
To find the best route for transmitting data to an end system, CDPD mobility
management definitions describe the creation and maintenance of a location information
data base suitable for real-time discovery of mobile unit locations.
Three network entities
the mobile units
the home backbone router
 and the serving backbone router

173
 Cont.….
Mobile units are responsible for identifying their unique network equipment identifiers
(NEIs) or network layer addresses to the Cellular Digital Packet Data network.
As the mobile unit moves from cell to cell, it registers itself with the new serving
backbone router.
 Each NEI is permanently associated with a home backbone router.

The serving backbone router notifies the home backbone router of a mobile unit when it
registers itself in the new serving area.
Mobility management makes use of two protocols: the Mobile Network Registration
Protocol and the Mobile Network Location Protocol.
174
 Mobile Network Registration Protocol
MNRP is the method mobile units use to identify themselves to the network.
This information is used to notify the network of the availability of one or
more NEIs at a mobile unit.
The registration procedure includes the information required by the network
for authenticating the user's access rights.
The mobile network registration protocol (MNRP) is used whenever a
mobile unit is initially powered up and when the mobile unit roams from cell
to cell.
In either case, the mobile unit automatically identifies itself to the backbone
router so its location can be known at all times .

175
 Mobile Network Location Protocol
MNLP is the protocol communicated between the mobile serving function
and mobile home function of the backbone routers for the support of
network layer mobility.

Mobile network location protocol (MNLP) uses the information exchanged

in mobile network registration protocol (MNRP) to facilitate the exchange of
location and redirection information between backbone routers, as well as the
forwarding and routing of messages to roaming mobile units

176
 Information Protection
To facilitate the widespread acceptance of Cellular Digital Packet Data
by cellular service providers, the specifications define methods for
ensuring the security of customer information, while still providing an
open environment for mobile users.

Cellular service providers are legitimately concerned about protecting

information about their subscriber base from each other, yet the nature of
the service dictates that carriers exchange information with one another
to provide subscribers with full mobility

177
CDPD Network Backbone
The internal network connecting the backbone routers (i.e., Mobile data
intermediate system) must be capable of supporting Connectionless
Network Protocol and IP.

The backbone routers terminate all Cellular Digital Packet Data-specific

communications with mobile units and Mobile Data Base System,
producing only generic IP and connectionless network protocol (CLNP)
packets for transmission through the backbone network.

178
 Mobile-End Systems Protocols
As noted, the requirement that mobile units support IP is meant to ensure
that existing applications software can be used in CDPD networks with little
or no modification.
However, new protocols below the network layer have also been designed
for Cellular Digital Packet Data.
These protocols fall into two categories: those required to allow the
mobile unit to connect locally to mobile data base system (MDBS), and
those required to allow the mobile unit to connect to a serving backbone
router and the network at large.

179
 Cont.…
Digital sense multiple access is the protocol used by the mobile unit to
connect to the local mobile data base system (MDBS).
Digital Sense, Multiple Access is similar to the carrier sense multiple access
(CSMA) protocol used in Ethernet.
Digital Sense, Multiple Access is a technique for multiple mobile units to
share a single cellular frequency, much as Carrier Sense, Multiple Access
allows multiple computers to share a single cable.
The key difference between the two, apart from the data rate, is that CSMA
requires the stations on the cable to act as peers competitor for access to
the cable in order to transmit, whereas in DSMA the mobile data base system
(MDBS) acts as a mediator, telling a mobile unit when its transmissions have
been corrupted.
180
 Cont.…
A pair of protocols permit communications between the mobile unit and
the backbone router.
The mobile data link protocol (MDLP) uses Media Access Control
framing and sequence control to provide basic error detection and
recovery procedures.
 the subnetwork dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP) provides
segmentation and head compression.

181
 Transparent Operation
Complete mobility is one of the key goals of Cellular Digital Packet
Data networks.
Because applications software must be able to operate over the network,
the network itself must make any required operational changes
transparently.
For example, the mobile units must automatically identify themselves
to the network using the Mobile Network Registration Protocol, which
recognizes the network addresses of mobile units whenever subscribers
power on their computers or move to a new cell.

182
 Cont.…
Data sent to a mobile unit is always sent through its home backbone
router , which is example of transparent operation.
The home backbone router maintains an up-to-date table of the locations of
the mobile units it is responsible for, thus making it possible to send
connectionless data transmissions to a roaming mobile unit at any time.
The home backbone router sends the data to the current serving backbone
router.
 This scheme ensures that data reaches an end system regardless of its
location, while keeping internal routing table updates to a minimum.

183
CHAPTER FIVE
MOBILE USER SECURITY

184
 Introduction
Mobile user security is the protection of mobile devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, and laptops, from threats associated with
wireless computing.
 Unprotected mobile devices can be targets for hackers, identity thieves,
and other cybercriminals.
Mobile security, or mobile device security, is the protection of
smartphones, tablets, and laptops from threats associated with
wireless computing.

185
 Availability
Availability is one of the five pillars of Information Assurance (IA). The other four are
integrity, authentication, confidentiality and nonrepudiation (Non protected.
When a system is regularly non-functioning, information availability is affected and
significantly impacts users.
In addition, when data is not secure and easily available, information security is
affected, i.e., top secret security clearances.
Data availability must be ensured by storage, which may be local or at an offsite
facility.

186
 Scheduling consideration
A schedule is a predefined time table according to which a job network is
activated.
Entire Operations monitors schedules to determine which job networks are to
be activated.
Scheduling considerations
Use of Schedules
A schedule is a predefined time table according to which a job network is
activated. Entire Operations monitors schedules to determine which job
networks are to be activated.
187
 Possible Schedule Definitions
If no schedule is defined and all schedule definitions are left empty, the network is never
activated automatically by the Entire Operations Monitor.
Schedule Extraction Times
All network schedules are checked by the Monitor at least once a day, usually at midnight
or after the first start of the Monitor on a new day.
The networks with a schedule entry for the current day are activated.
 If no Earliest Start Time is defined at the network or job level, execution starts
immediately after activation.
 New or modified networks or jobs with a schedule entry for the current day are activated
also if the activation time is not reached already.

188
 Notebook connectivity
There are multiple ways to connect a notebook to the internet, including.
Wi-Fi
A common way to connect a notebook to the internet, Wi-Fi can be accessed by
clicking the network icon in the taskbar.
 If the network isn't visible, you can refresh the list by selecting Network & Internet
settings and then Show available networks.
Ethernet
An older type of connection that's still used in some corporate settings.
You can use an Ethernet-to-USB dongle to connect a device that doesn't have an
Ethernet port.

189
 Cont.…
Cellular
Some laptops and tablets have cellular modems that allow you to connect
directly to a mobile carrier.
 This requires a data plan from a mobile carrier.

USB tethering
You can use your phone as an internet connection for your laptop by connecting
your phone's USB charger cable to your laptop and turning on USB tethering on
your phone 190
 Telephone communications tools
Telephone communication tools encompass a wide range of devices, technologies, and
systems that facilitate voice and data communication over phone networks.
Telecommunication tools are technologies, devices, and systems that enable the
transmission of information—such as voice, data, text, audio, and video—over
distances.
 These tools facilitate communication across various platforms, networks, and devices.

The followings are the main categories and examples of telecommunication tools:

191
Communication Devices
Telephones: Landlines, mobile phones, and VoIP phones for
voice communication.
Smartphones: Devices that combine telephony, internet access,
and multimedia capabilities.
Walkie-Talkies: Two-way radios for short-range
communication.
Satellite Phones: Phones that use satellites for communication
in remote areas

192
 Networking Hardware
Routers: Direct data traffic between devices and networks.

Switches: Connect devices within a local area network (LAN).

Modems: Facilitate internet connectivity by modulating and demodulating signals.

Antennas: Used for transmitting and receiving wireless signals

193
 Software-Based Tools
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Software enabling voice communication over
the internet (e.g., Skype, Zoom, Microsoft Teams).
Unified Communication Platforms: Tools that integrate voice, video, chat, and
collaboration (e.g., Cisco Webex, Slack).
Email Clients: Software for electronic mail communication (e.g., Outlook, Gmail).
Messaging Apps: Instant messaging platforms for text and voice communication
(e.g., WhatsApp, Signal)

194
 Network Infrastructure
Telecommunication Towers: Provide wireless signal coverage for mobile
and internet services.
Fiber Optic Cables: High-speed data transmission for broadband internet
and telecommunication networks.
Satellite Systems: Enable global communication and broadcasting.

195
Broadcasting Tools
Radio Systems: AM/FM and digital radio for transmitting audio content.

Television Broadcasting: Tools for transmitting visual content to homes

via terrestrial, satellite, or cable.

196
Data Transmission and Storage
Cloud Platforms: Enable storage and sharing of data (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox).

File Transfer Protocols (FTP): Systems for transferring files over networks.

Collaboration and Conferencing Tools

Video Conferencing Systems: Platforms for remote meetings and
webinars (e.g., Zoom, Google Meet).
Collaboration Platforms: Tools like Microsoft Teams, Slack, and Asana
that combine communication with task management
197
 Creating mobile backup
A mobile backup is a copy of the data on your mobile device that is stored in a secure
location, such as the cloud or on a computer.
This backup can be used to restore your data if your device is lost, damaged, or reset

 It typically includes contacts, messages, photos, videos, app data, and settings, depending
on the method and platform

198
 Ways to Perform a Mobile Backup

Mobile backups can be done using different methods, depending on your

device type and the data you want to secure. Here are the primary methods:

199
 A. Cloud Backups
Cloud services automatically save your data online, making it accessible from
any device.
For Android:

Google Backup:
Backs up app data, call history, contacts, device settings, photos, and videos.
Access via Settings > System > Backup.

Manufacturer Cloud Services:

Samsung Cloud: Available in Samsung phones under Accounts and backup.

200
B. Backups to Computer
Connecting your device to a computer allows you to create local backups.

For Android:
Use USB to transfer files like photos and documents manually.
C. External Storage Devices
Use external drives or SD cards for offline backups.

For Android:
 Insert an SD card and copy files to it.
 Use USB OTG drives to transfer files.

201
 D. Specialized Backup Apps

Third-party apps provide tailored solutions for different types of backups:

Android: Apps like Super Backup & Restore, Titanium Backup

(requires root), or Helium Backup.
E. Email Backup for Contacts
Export contacts to your SIM card or save them to your Google or Apple
account.
For email, sync accounts like Gmail or Outlook.
202
 F. Messaging Apps' Built-in Backups
Apps like WhatsApp or Telegram have their own backup features:

WhatsApp: Backup to Google Drive (Android)

Telegram: Chats are stored on the cloud automatically.

G. Manual Backups for Specific Data
Photos and Videos: Use Google Photos, iCloud Photos, or transfer them
to a computer.
Documents: Sync with Google Drive, Dropbox, or similar services.

203
 loss of computing resources
Loss of computing resources, or data loss, occurs when sensitive or valuable information on
a computer is compromised. This can happen for a number of reasons, including:
 Human error: The most common cause of data loss in businesses, this includes
accidentally deleting or overwriting files
Hardware failure: This can include the wearing out or sudden failure of hard drives

Malware and cyberattacks: This can include ransomware and other threats

Power outages and surges: This can include improper shutdowns of systems

Natural disasters: This can include physical damage or mechanical failure

Software corruption: This can include viruses

204
 Cont.…
To prevent data loss, you can: Back up your data regularly, Use only trusted
software, Increase data security, and Use the right file types.
You can also create a disaster recovery plan, which includes: Identifying and
protecting critical information, Preparing for natural disasters, and Planning
for recovering from data loss and data breaches.

205
 Integrity
Integrity refers to the quality of being honest, ethical, and adhering to strong moral
principles.
It is a fundamental value that guides an individual’s behavior and decision-making.

The concept of integrity is applicable in personal conduct, relationships, business

practices, and various professional and social contexts.

206
 Key Characteristics of Integrity

 Honesty: Being truthful in words and actions.

 Consistency: Aligning actions with values and promises.

 Transparency: Openly communicating intentions and information.

 Responsibility: Taking ownership of actions and their consequences.

 Ethical Behavior: Acting in ways that are morally and socially

acceptable.

207
 Importance of Integrity

 Builds Trust: Integrity fosters trust in personal and professional

relationships.
 Promotes Credibility: People with integrity are respected and considered
reliable.
 Encourages Ethical Behavior: Sets a standard for others to follow,
creating a positive environment.
 Ensures Sustainability: In systems and organizations, integrity supports
long-term success and fairness.

208
 Confidentiality

Confidentiality refers to the principle of keeping information secure and

ensuring that it is accessible only to authorized individuals or entities.
It is a cornerstone of information security and is vital for protecting
sensitive data from unauthorized access, breaches, or disclosure.

209
 Features of Confidentiality
1.Restricted Access:
 Ensures that only authorized users can access specific information.
 Prevents unauthorized individuals from viewing, modifying, or sharing data.

2.Data Protection:
 Safeguards sensitive information such as personal data, financial records, trade
secrets, or classified materials.

210
Cont.….
3. Trust:
 Builds trust between parties (e.g., businesses and customers) by
ensuring their data is handled securely.
4. Legal and Ethical Obligation:
 Many industries and organizations are required by law to maintain
confidentiality

211
 Importance of Confidentiality
Privacy:
Protects personal information from being exposed or misused.
Security:
Prevents unauthorized access that could lead to data breaches or
misuse.
Competitive Advantage:
Keeps business secrets, strategies, and intellectual property safe.
Compliance:
Helps meet legal and regulatory requirements.

212
 Mobile employee information security
recommendations
Here are some recommendations for mobile employee information
security:
Use strong passwords: Require employees to create unique, strong passwords and
discourage password sharing.
Enable multi-factor authentication (MFA): MFA adds an extra layer of security to ensure
only authorized users can access corporate data.
Use biometrics: Biometric authentication, such as fingerprint or facial recognition, can add
an extra layer of security.
Encrypt data: Encrypting data on mobile devices protects it in case of loss or theft 213
 Cont.…
Update software: Regularly update mobile operating systems and apps to patch
vulnerabilities and prevent attacks.
Use VPNs: Mandate VPN usage when accessing sensitive information or connecting
to public Wi-Fi networks.
Avoid public Wi-Fi: Public Wi-Fi networks are often targeted by criminals, so
minimize their use for remote work.
Use trusted Wi-Fi networks: When using Wi-Fi, use trusted networks.

Protect mobile hot spots: Protect mobile hot spots with strong passwords.
214
Completed
215